OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11 ***

[Illustration]




Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland

by Lewis Carroll

THE MILLENNIUM FULCRUM EDITION 3.0

Contents

 CHAPTER I
Down the Rabbit-Hole
 CHAPTER II
A Caucus-Race and a Long Tale
 CHAPTER IV
The Rabbit Sends in a Little Bill
 CHAPTER V
Advice from a Caterpillar
 CHAPTER VI
The Queen’s Croquet-Ground
 CHAPTER IX
The Mock Turtle’s Story
 CHAPTER X
The Lobster Quadrille
 CHAPTER XI
There was nothing so _very_ remarkable in that; nor did Alice think it
so _very_ much out of the way to hear the Rabbit say to itself, “Oh
dear
In another moment down went Alice after it, never once considering how
in the world she was to get out again
Either the well was very deep, or she fell very slowly, for she had
plenty of time as she went down to look about her and to wonder what
was going to happen next
“Well!” thought Alice to herself, “after such a fall as this, I shall
think nothing of tumbling down stairs
How brave they’ll all think me
at home
Why, I wouldn’t say anything about it, even if I fell off the
top of the house!” (Which was very likely true.)

Down, down, down
Would the fall _never_ come to an end
“I wonder how
many miles I’ve fallen by this time?” she said aloud
“I must be
getting somewhere near the centre of the earth
“I wonder if I shall fall right _through_
the earth
How funny it’ll seem to come out among the people that walk
with their heads downward
Please, Ma’am, is this New Zealand or Australia?”
(and she tried to curtsey as she spoke—fancy _curtseying_ as you’re
falling through the air
Do you think you could manage it?) “And what
an ignorant little girl she’ll think me for asking
No, it’ll never do
to ask: perhaps I shall see it written up somewhere.”

Down, down, down
There was nothing else to do, so Alice soon began
talking again
“Dinah’ll miss me very much to-night, I should think!”
(Dinah was the cat.) “I hope they’ll remember her saucer of milk at
tea-time
I wish you were down here with me
There are
no mice in the air, I’m afraid, but you might catch a bat, and that’s
very like a mouse, you know
But do cats eat bats, I wonder?” And here
Alice began to get rather sleepy, and went on saying to herself, in a
dreamy sort of way, “Do cats eat bats
Do cats eat bats?” and
sometimes, “Do bats eat cats?” for, you see, as she couldn’t answer
either question, it didn’t much matter which way she put it
down she came upon a heap of sticks and dry leaves, and
the fall was over
either the locks were too large, or the key was too small,
but at any rate it would not open any of them
Alice opened the door and found that it led into a small passage, not
much larger than a rat-hole: she knelt down and looked along the
passage into the loveliest garden you ever saw
Oh,
how I wish I could shut up like a telescope
I think I could, if I only
knew how to begin.” For, you see, so many out-of-the-way things had
happened lately, that Alice had begun to think that very few things
indeed were really impossible
It was all very well to say “Drink me,” but the wise little Alice was
not going to do _that_ in a hurry
I
wonder what I should be like then?” And she tried to fancy what the
flame of a candle is like after the candle is blown out, for she could
not remember ever having seen such a thing
After a while, finding that nothing more happened, she decided on going
into the garden at once; but, alas for poor Alice
“But it’s no use now,” thought poor Alice, “to pretend to be two
people
So she set to work, and very soon finished off the cake
*      *      *      *      *      *      *

    *      *      *      *      *      *

*      *      *      *      *      *      *




CHAPTER II
Good-bye, feet!”
(for when she looked down at her feet, they seemed to be almost out of
sight, they were getting so far off)
“Oh, my poor little feet, I
wonder who will put on your shoes and stockings for you now, dears
I shall be a great deal too far off to trouble
myself about you: you must manage the best way you can;—but I must be
kind to them,” thought Alice, “or perhaps they won’t walk the way I
want to go
Let me see: I’ll give them a new pair of boots every
Christmas.”

And she went on planning to herself how she would manage it
“They must
go by the carrier,” she thought; “and how funny it’ll seem, sending
presents to one’s own feet
And how odd the directions will look
_Alice’s Right Foot, Esq., Hearthrug, near the Fender,_ (_with
     Alice’s love_)
It was as much as she could do, lying down on one side, to
look through into the garden with one eye; but to get through was more
hopeless than ever: she sat down and began to cry again
“You ought to be ashamed of yourself,” said Alice, “a great girl like
you,” (she might well say this), “to go on crying in this way
Stop
this moment, I tell you!” But she went on all the same, shedding
gallons of tears, until there was a large pool all round her, about
four inches deep and reaching half down the hall
After a time she heard a little pattering of feet in the distance, and
she hastily dried her eyes to see what was coming
Alice took up the fan and gloves, and, as the hall was very hot, she
kept fanning herself all the time she went on talking: “Dear, dear
And yesterday things went on just as usual
I wonder if I’ve been changed in the night
Let me think: was I the
same when I got up this morning
I almost think I can remember feeling
a little different
But if I’m not the same, the next question is, Who
in the world am I
Ah, _that’s_ the great puzzle!” And she began
thinking over all the children she knew that were of the same age as
herself, to see if she could have been changed for any of them
“I’m sure I’m not Ada,” she said, “for her hair goes in such long
ringlets, and mine doesn’t go in ringlets at all; and I’m sure I can’t
be Mabel, for I know all sorts of things, and she, oh
Besides, _she’s_ she, and _I’m_ I, and—oh dear, how
puzzling it all is
I’ll try if I know all the things I used to know
Let me see: four times five is twelve, and four times six is thirteen,
and four times seven is—oh dear
I shall never get to twenty at that
rate
However, the Multiplication Table doesn’t signify: let’s try
Geography
London is the capital of Paris, and Paris is the capital of
Rome, and Rome—no, _that’s_ all wrong, I’m certain
I must have been
changed for Mabel
No, I’ve
made up my mind about it; if I’m Mabel, I’ll stay down here
It’ll be
no use their putting their heads down and saying ‘Come up again, dear!’
I shall only look up and say ‘Who am I then
“How _can_ I have done that?” she thought
And I declare it’s too bad, that it is!”

As she said these words her foot slipped, and in another moment,
splash
she was up to her chin in salt water
Her first idea was that
she had somehow fallen into the sea, “and in that case I can go back by
railway,” she said to herself
“I wish I hadn’t cried so much!” said Alice, as she swam about, trying
to find her way out
“I shall be punished for it now, I suppose, by
being drowned in my own tears
That _will_ be a queer thing, to be
sure
“Would it be of any use, now,” thought Alice, “to speak to this mouse
Everything is so out-of-the-way down here, that I should think very
likely it can talk: at any rate, there’s no harm in trying.” So she
began: “O Mouse, do you know the way out of this pool
The Mouse gave a
sudden leap out of the water, and seemed to quiver all over with
fright
“Oh, I beg your pardon!” cried Alice hastily, afraid that she
had hurt the poor animal’s feelings
“I quite forgot you didn’t like
cats.”

“Not like cats!” cried the Mouse, in a shrill, passionate voice
“Would
_you_ like cats if you were me?”

“Well, perhaps not,” said Alice in a soothing tone: “don’t be angry
about it
And yet I wish I could show you our cat Dinah: I think you’d
take a fancy to cats if you could only see her
“We won’t talk
about her any more if you’d rather not.”

“We indeed!” cried the Mouse, who was trembling down to the end of his
tail
“As if _I_ would talk on such a subject
Our family always
_hated_ cats: nasty, low, vulgar things
Don’t let me hear the name
again!”

“I won’t indeed!” said Alice, in a great hurry to change the subject of
conversation
“Are you—are you fond—of—of dogs?” The Mouse did not
answer, so Alice went on eagerly: “There is such a nice little dog near
our house I should like to show you
A little bright-eyed terrier, you
know, with oh, such long curly brown hair
So she called softly after it, “Mouse dear
Alice
led the way, and the whole party swam to the shore
At last the Mouse, who seemed to be a person of authority among them,
called out, “Sit down, all of you, and listen to me
_I’ll_ soon make
you dry enough!” They all sat down at once, in a large ring, with the
Mouse in the middle
Alice kept her eyes anxiously fixed on it, for she
felt sure she would catch a bad cold if she did not get dry very soon
“Ahem!” said the Mouse with an important air, “are you all ready
This
is the driest thing I know
Silence all round, if you please
‘William
the Conqueror, whose cause was favoured by the pope, was soon submitted
to by the English, who wanted leaders, and had been of late much
accustomed to usurpation and conquest
Edwin and Morcar, the earls of
Mercia and Northumbria—’”

“Ugh!” said the Lory, with a shiver
“I beg your pardon!” said the Mouse, frowning, but very politely: “Did
you speak?”

“Not I!” said the Lory hastily
“I thought you did,” said the Mouse
‘Edwin and Morcar,
the earls of Mercia and Northumbria, declared for him: and even
Stigand, the patriotic archbishop of Canterbury, found it advisable—’”

“Found _what_?” said the Duck
“Found _it_,” the Mouse replied rather crossly: “of course you know
what ‘it’ means.”

“I know what ‘it’ means well enough, when _I_ find a thing,” said the
Duck: “it’s generally a frog or a worm
The question is, what did the
archbishop find?”

The Mouse did not notice this question, but hurriedly went on, “‘—found
it advisable to go with Edgar Atheling to meet William and offer him
the crown
William’s conduct at first was moderate
But the insolence
of his Normans—’ How are you getting on now, my dear?” it continued,
turning to Alice as it spoke
“I don’t know the meaning of half
those long words, and, what’s more, I don’t believe you do either!” And
the Eaglet bent down its head to hide a smile: some of the other birds
tittered audibly
There was no “One, two, three, and
away,” but they began running when they liked, and left off when they
liked, so that it was not easy to know when the race was over
At last the Dodo
said, “_Everybody_ has won, and all must have prizes.”

“But who is to give the prizes?” quite a chorus of voices asked
“Why, _she_, of course,” said the Dodo, pointing to Alice with one
finger; and the whole party at once crowded round her, calling out in a
confused way, “Prizes
Prizes!”

Alice had no idea what to do, and in despair she put her hand in her
pocket, and pulled out a box of comfits, (luckily the salt water had
not got into it), and handed them round as prizes
There was exactly
one a-piece, all round
“But she must have a prize herself, you know,” said the Mouse
“Of course,” the Dodo replied very gravely
“What else have you got in
your pocket?” he went on, turning to Alice
“Only a thimble,” said Alice sadly
“Hand it over here,” said the Dodo
The next thing was to eat the comfits: this caused some noise and
confusion, as the large birds complained that they could not taste
theirs, and the small ones choked and had to be patted on the back
However, it was over at last, and they sat down again in a ring, and
begged the Mouse to tell them something more
“You promised to tell me your history, you know,” said Alice, “and why
it is you hate—C and D,” she added in a whisper, half afraid that it
would be offended again
“Mine is a long and a sad tale!” said the Mouse, turning to Alice, and
sighing
“What are
you thinking of?”

“I beg your pardon,” said Alice very humbly: “you had got to the fifth
bend, I think?”

“I had _not!_” cried the Mouse, sharply and very angrily
“A knot!” said Alice, always ready to make herself useful, and looking
anxiously about her
“Oh, do let me help to undo it!”

“I shall do nothing of the sort,” said the Mouse, getting up and
walking away
“You insult me by talking such nonsense!”

“I didn’t mean it!” pleaded poor Alice
“But you’re so easily offended,
you know!”

The Mouse only growled in reply
“Please come back and finish your story!” Alice called after it; and
the others all joined in chorus, “Yes, please do!” but the Mouse only
shook its head impatiently, and walked a little quicker
“What a pity it wouldn’t stay!” sighed the Lory, as soon as it was
quite out of sight; and an old Crab took the opportunity of saying to
her daughter “Ah, my dear
Let this be a lesson to you never to lose
_your_ temper!” “Hold your tongue, Ma!” said the young Crab, a little
snappishly
“You’re enough to try the patience of an oyster!”

“I wish I had our Dinah here, I know I do!” said Alice aloud,
addressing nobody in particular
“She’d soon fetch it back!”

“And who is Dinah, if I might venture to ask the question?” said the
Lory
Alice replied eagerly, for she was always ready to talk about her pet:
“Dinah’s our cat
And she’s such a capital one for catching mice you
can’t think
And oh, I wish you could see her after the birds
Why,
she’ll eat a little bird as soon as look at it!”

This speech caused a remarkable sensation among the party
It’s high time you were all in
bed!” On various pretexts they all moved off, and Alice was soon left
alone
“I wish I hadn’t mentioned Dinah!” she said to herself in a melancholy
tone
“Nobody seems to like her, down here, and I’m sure she’s the best
cat in the world
I wonder if I shall ever see you
any more!” And here poor Alice began to cry again, for she felt very
lonely and low-spirited
She’ll get me executed, as sure as ferrets are
ferrets
Very soon the Rabbit noticed Alice, as she went hunting about, and
called out to her in an angry tone, “Why, Mary Ann, what _are_ you
doing out here
Run home this moment, and fetch me a pair of gloves and
a fan
Quick, now!” And Alice was so much frightened that she ran off
at once in the direction it pointed to, without trying to explain the
mistake it had made
“He took me for his housemaid,” she said to herself as she ran
“How
surprised he’ll be when he finds out who I am
But I’d better take him
his fan and gloves—that is, if I can find them.” As she said this, she
came upon a neat little house, on the door of which was a bright brass
plate with the name “W
She went in without
knocking, and hurried upstairs, in great fear lest she should meet the
real Mary Ann, and be turned out of the house before she had found the
fan and gloves
“How queer it seems,” Alice said to herself, “to be going messages for
a rabbit
I suppose Dinah’ll be sending me on messages next!” And she
began fancying the sort of thing that would happen: “‘Miss Alice
Come
here directly, and get ready for your walk!’ ‘Coming in a minute,
nurse
There was no label
this time with the words “DRINK ME,” but nevertheless she uncorked it
and put it to her lips
“I know _something_ interesting is sure to
happen,” she said to herself, “whenever I eat or drink anything; so
I’ll just see what this bottle does
She hastily put
down the bottle, saying to herself “That’s quite enough—I hope I shan’t
grow any more—As it is, I can’t get out at the door—I do wish I hadn’t
drunk quite so much!”

Alas
Still she went on growing, and, as a last resource, she put one arm out
of the window, and one foot up the chimney, and said to herself “Now I
can do no more, whatever happens
“It was much pleasanter at home,” thought poor Alice, “when one wasn’t
always growing larger and smaller, and being ordered about by mice and
rabbits
I almost wish I hadn’t gone down that rabbit-hole—and yet—and
yet—it’s rather curious, you know, this sort of life
I do wonder what
_can_ have happened to me
When I used to read fairy-tales, I fancied
that kind of thing never happened, and now here I am in the middle of
one
There ought to be a book written about me, that there ought
That’ll be a comfort, one way—never to be an old woman—but
then—always to have lessons to learn
Oh, I shouldn’t like _that!_”

“Oh, you foolish Alice!” she answered herself
“How can you learn
lessons in here
“Fetch me my gloves this moment!”
Then came a little pattering of feet on the stairs
Presently the Rabbit came up to the door, and tried to open it; but, as
the door opened inwards, and Alice’s elbow was pressed hard against it,
that attempt proved a failure
Next came an angry voice—the Rabbit’s—“Pat
Where are you?” And
then a voice she had never heard before, “Sure then I’m here
Digging
for apples, yer honour!”

“Digging for apples, indeed!” said the Rabbit angrily
Come and
help me out of _this!_” (Sounds of more broken glass.)

“Now tell me, Pat, what’s that in the window?”

“Sure, it’s an arm, yer honour!” (He pronounced it “arrum.”)

“An arm, you goose
This time there were
_two_ little shrieks, and more sounds of broken glass
“What a number
of cucumber-frames there must be!” thought Alice
fetch it here, lad!—Here, put ’em up at this corner—No, tie ’em
together first—they don’t reach half high enough yet—Oh
they’ll do
well enough; don’t be particular—Here, Bill
catch hold of this
rope—Will the roof bear?—Mind that loose slate—Oh, it’s coming down
Heads below!” (a loud crash)—“Now, who did that?—It was Bill, I
fancy—Who’s to go down the chimney?—Nay, _I_ shan’t
_You_ do
it!—_That_ I won’t, then!—Bill’s to go down—Here, Bill
the master says
you’re to go down the chimney!”

“Oh
So Bill’s got to come down the chimney, has he?” said Alice to
herself
“Shy, they seem to put everything upon Bill
“I’ll put a stop to
this,” she said to herself, and shouted out, “You’d better not do that
again!” which produced another dead silence
Alice noticed with some surprise that the pebbles were all turning into
little cakes as they lay on the floor, and a bright idea came into her
head
As soon as she was small enough to get
through the door, she ran out of the house, and found quite a crowd of
little animals and birds waiting outside
The poor little Lizard, Bill,
was in the middle, being held up by two guinea-pigs, who were giving it
something out of a bottle
They all made a rush at Alice the moment she
appeared; but she ran off as hard as she could, and soon found herself
safe in a thick wood
“The first thing I’ve got to do,” said Alice to herself, as she
wandered about in the wood, “is to grow to my right size again; and the
second thing is to find my way into that lovely garden
An enormous puppy was looking down at her with large round eyes, and
feebly stretching out one paw, trying to touch her
I’d nearly forgotten that
I’ve got to grow up again
Let me see—how _is_ it to be managed
I
suppose I ought to eat or drink something or other; but the great
question is, what?”

The great question certainly was, what
Alice looked all round her at
the flowers and the blades of grass, but she did not see anything that
looked like the right thing to eat or drink under the circumstances
“Who are _you?_” said the Caterpillar
This was not an encouraging opening for a conversation
“Explain
yourself!”

“I can’t explain _myself_, I’m afraid, sir,” said Alice, “because I’m
not myself, you see.”

“I don’t see,” said the Caterpillar
“Well, perhaps your feelings may be different,” said Alice; “all I know
is, it would feel very queer to _me_.”

“You!” said the Caterpillar contemptuously
“Who are _you?_”

Which brought them back again to the beginning of the conversation
Here was another puzzling question; and as Alice could not think of any
good reason, and as the Caterpillar seemed to be in a _very_ unpleasant
state of mind, she turned away
“Come back!” the Caterpillar called after her
“I’ve something
important to say!”

This sounded promising, certainly: Alice turned and came back again
“Keep your temper,” said the Caterpillar
“Is that all?” said Alice, swallowing down her anger as well as she
could
Alice thought she might as well wait, as she had nothing else to do,
and perhaps after all it might tell her something worth hearing
“Well, I’ve tried to say “How doth the little busy bee,” but it all
came different!” Alice replied in a very melancholy voice
“Repeat, ‘_You are old, Father William_,’” said the Caterpillar
Do you think I can listen all day to such stuff
Be off, or I’ll kick you down stairs!”


“That is not said right,” said the Caterpillar
The Caterpillar was the first to speak
“What size do you want to be?” it asked
“Oh, I’m not particular as to size,” Alice hastily replied; “only one
doesn’t like changing so often, you know.”

“I _don’t_ know,” said the Caterpillar
Alice said nothing: she had never been so much contradicted in her life
before, and she felt that she was losing her temper
“Are you content now?” said the Caterpillar
“But I’m not used to it!” pleaded poor Alice in a piteous tone
And she
thought of herself, “I wish the creatures wouldn’t be so easily
offended!”

“You’ll get used to it in time,” said the Caterpillar; and it put the
hookah into its mouth and began smoking again
This time Alice waited patiently until it chose to speak again
In a
minute or two the Caterpillar took the hookah out of its mouth and
yawned once or twice, and shook itself
“Of the mushroom,” said the Caterpillar, just as if she had asked it
aloud; and in another moment it was out of sight
Alice remained looking thoughtfully at the mushroom for a minute,
trying to make out which were the two sides of it; and as it was
perfectly round, she found this a very difficult question
However, at
last she stretched her arms round it as far as they would go, and broke
off a bit of the edge with each hand
“And now which is which?” she said to herself, and nibbled a little of
the right-hand bit to try the effect: the next moment she felt a
violent blow underneath her chin: it had struck her foot
She was a good deal frightened by this very sudden change, but she felt
that there was no time to be lost, as she was shrinking rapidly; so she
set to work at once to eat some of the other bit
Her chin was pressed
so closely against her foot, that there was hardly room to open her
mouth; but she did it at last, and managed to swallow a morsel of the
lefthand bit
“What _can_ all that green stuff be?” said Alice
“And where _have_ my
shoulders got to
And oh, my poor hands, how is it I can’t see you?”
She was moving them about as she spoke, but no result seemed to follow,
except a little shaking among the distant green leaves
“I’m _not_ a serpent!” said Alice indignantly
“I’ve tried the roots of trees, and I’ve tried banks, and I’ve tried
hedges,” the Pigeon went on, without attending to her; “but those
serpents
There’s no pleasing them!”

Alice was more and more puzzled, but she thought there was no use in
saying anything more till the Pigeon had finished
“As if it wasn’t trouble enough hatching the eggs,” said the Pigeon;
“but I must be on the look-out for serpents night and day
Why, I
haven’t had a wink of sleep these three weeks!”

“I’m very sorry you’ve been annoyed,” said Alice, who was beginning to
see its meaning
Ugh, Serpent!”

“But I’m _not_ a serpent, I tell you!” said Alice
_What_ are you?” said the Pigeon
“I can see you’re trying to
invent something!”

“I—I’m a little girl,” said Alice, rather doubtfully, as she remembered
the number of changes she had gone through that day
“A likely story indeed!” said the Pigeon in a tone of the deepest
contempt
“I’ve seen a good many little girls in my time, but never
_one_ with such a neck as that
You’re a serpent; and there’s
no use denying it
Alice crouched down among the trees as well
as she could, for her neck kept getting entangled among the branches,
and every now and then she had to stop and untwist it
It was so long since she had been anything near the right size, that it
felt quite strange at first; but she got used to it in a few minutes,
and began talking to herself, as usual
“Come, there’s half my plan
done now
How puzzling all these changes are
I’m never sure what I’m
going to be, from one minute to another
It was opened by
another footman in livery, with a round face, and large eyes like a
frog; and both footmen, Alice noticed, had powdered hair that curled
all over their heads
She felt very curious to know what it was all
about, and crept a little way out of the wood to listen
The Fish-Footman began by producing from under his arm a great letter,
nearly as large as himself, and this he handed over to the other,
saying, in a solemn tone, “For the Duchess
An invitation from the
Queen to play croquet.” The Frog-Footman repeated, in the same solemn
tone, only changing the order of the words a little, “From the Queen
An invitation for the Duchess to play croquet.”

Then they both bowed low, and their curls got entangled together
Alice went timidly up to the door, and knocked
“There’s no sort of use in knocking,” said the Footman, “and that for
two reasons
“Please, then,” said Alice, “how am I to get in?”

“There might be some sense in your knocking,” the Footman went on
without attending to her, “if we had the door between us
For instance,
if you were _inside_, you might knock, and I could let you out, you
know.” He was looking up into the sky all the time he was speaking, and
this Alice thought decidedly uncivil
“But perhaps he can’t help it,”
she said to herself; “his eyes are so _very_ nearly at the top of his
head
But at any rate he might answer questions.—How am I to get in?”
she repeated, aloud
“—or next day, maybe,” the Footman continued in the same tone, exactly
as if nothing had happened
“How am I to get in?” asked Alice again, in a louder tone
“_Are_ you to get in at all?” said the Footman
“That’s the first
question, you know.”

It was, no doubt: only Alice did not like to be told so
“It’s really
dreadful,” she muttered to herself, “the way all the creatures argue
It’s enough to drive one crazy!”

The Footman seemed to think this a good opportunity for repeating his
remark, with variations
“I shall sit here,” he said, “on and off, for
days and days.”

“But what am _I_ to do?” said Alice
“Anything you like,” said the Footman, and began whistling
“Oh, there’s no use in talking to him,” said Alice desperately: “he’s
perfectly idiotic!” And she opened the door and went in
“There’s certainly too much pepper in that soup!” Alice said to
herself, as well as she could for sneezing
There was certainly too much of it in the air
Even the Duchess sneezed
occasionally; and as for the baby, it was sneezing and howling
alternately without a moment’s pause
The only things in the kitchen
that did not sneeze, were the cook, and a large cat which was sitting
on the hearth and grinning from ear to ear
“You don’t know much,” said the Duchess; “and that’s a fact.”

Alice did not at all like the tone of this remark, and thought it would
be as well to introduce some other subject of conversation
The Duchess took no notice of
them even when they hit her; and the baby was howling so much already,
that it was quite impossible to say whether the blows hurt it or not
“Oh, _please_ mind what you’re doing!” cried Alice, jumping up and down
in an agony of terror
“Oh, there goes his _precious_ nose!” as an
unusually large saucepan flew close by it, and very nearly carried it
off
“Just
think of what work it would make with the day and night
(In which the cook and the baby joined):


“Wow
you may nurse it a bit, if you like!” the Duchess said to Alice,
flinging the baby at her as she spoke
“I must go and get ready to play
croquet with the Queen,” and she hurried out of the room
The cook
threw a frying-pan after her as she went out, but it just missed her
Alice caught the baby with some difficulty, as it was a queer-shaped
little creature, and held out its arms and legs in all directions,
“just like a star-fish,” thought Alice
“Don’t grunt,” said Alice; “that’s not at all a proper way of
expressing yourself.”

The baby grunted again, and Alice looked very anxiously into its face
to see what was the matter with it
“But perhaps it was only
sobbing,” she thought, and looked into its eyes again, to see if there
were any tears
“If you’re going to turn into a pig, my dear,”
said Alice, seriously, “I’ll have nothing more to do with you
Mind
now!” The poor little thing sobbed again (or grunted, it was impossible
to say which), and they went on for some while in silence
Alice was just beginning to think to herself, “Now, what am I to do
with this creature when I get it home?” when it grunted again, so
violently, that she looked down into its face in some alarm
This time
there could be _no_ mistake about it: it was neither more nor less than
a pig, and she felt that it would be quite absurd for her to carry it
further
So she set the little creature down, and felt quite relieved to see it
trot away quietly into the wood
The Cat only grinned when it saw Alice
It looked good-natured, she
thought: still it had _very_ long claws and a great many teeth, so she
felt that it ought to be treated with respect
“Cheshire Puss,” she began, rather timidly, as she did not at all know
whether it would like the name: however, it only grinned a little
wider
“Come, it’s pleased so far,” thought Alice, and she went on
“Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here?”

“That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,” said the Cat
“I don’t much care where—” said Alice
“Then it doesn’t matter which way you go,” said the Cat
“—so long as I get _somewhere_,” Alice added as an explanation
“Oh, you’re sure to do that,” said the Cat, “if you only walk long
enough.”

Alice felt that this could not be denied, so she tried another
question
“What sort of people live about here?”

“In _that_ direction,” the Cat said, waving its right paw round, “lives
a Hatter: and in _that_ direction,” waving the other paw, “lives a
March Hare
Visit either you like: they’re both mad.”

“But I don’t want to go among mad people,” Alice remarked
“Oh, you can’t help that,” said the Cat: “we’re all mad here
You’re mad.”

“How do you know I’m mad?” said Alice
You grant that?”

“I suppose so,” said Alice
“Well, then,” the Cat went on, “you see, a dog growls when it’s angry,
and wags its tail when it’s pleased
Now _I_ growl when I’m pleased,
and wag my tail when I’m angry
Therefore I’m mad.”

“_I_ call it purring, not growling,” said Alice
“Call it what you like,” said the Cat
“Do you play croquet with the
Queen to-day?”

“I should like it very much,” said Alice, “but I haven’t been invited
yet.”

“You’ll see me there,” said the Cat, and vanished
Alice was not much surprised at this, she was getting so used to queer
things happening
While she was looking at the place where it had been,
it suddenly appeared again
“By-the-bye, what became of the baby?” said the Cat
“I’d nearly
forgotten to ask.”

“It turned into a pig,” Alice quietly said, just as if it had come back
in a natural way
“I thought it would,” said the Cat, and vanished again
Alice waited a little, half expecting to see it again, but it did not
appear, and after a minute or two she walked on in the direction in
which the March Hare was said to live
“Did you say pig, or fig?” said the Cat
I’ve often seen a cat without a grin,” thought Alice; “but a
grin without a cat
I almost wish I’d gone to see the Hatter instead!”




CHAPTER VII
No room!” they cried out when they saw
Alice coming
“There’s _plenty_ of room!” said Alice indignantly, and
she sat down in a large arm-chair at one end of the table
“Have some wine,” the March Hare said in an encouraging tone
Alice looked all round the table, but there was nothing on it but tea
“I don’t see any wine,” she remarked
“There isn’t any,” said the March Hare
“Then it wasn’t very civil of you to offer it,” said Alice angrily
“It wasn’t very civil of you to sit down without being invited,” said
the March Hare
“I didn’t know it was _your_ table,” said Alice; “it’s laid for a great
many more than three.”

“Your hair wants cutting,” said the Hatter
He had been looking at
Alice for some time with great curiosity, and this was his first
speech
“I’m glad they’ve
begun asking riddles.—I believe I can guess that,” she added aloud
“Do you mean that you think you can find out the answer to it?” said
the March Hare
“Then you should say what you mean,” the March Hare went on
“I do,” Alice hastily replied; “at least—at least I mean what I
say—that’s the same thing, you know.”

“Not the same thing a bit!” said the Hatter
The Hatter was the first to break the silence
“What day of the month
is it?” he said, turning to Alice: he had taken his watch out of his
pocket, and was looking at it uneasily, shaking it every now and then,
and holding it to his ear
Alice considered a little, and then said “The fourth.”

“Two days wrong!” sighed the Hatter
“I told you butter wouldn’t suit
the works!” he added looking angrily at the March Hare
“It was the _best_ butter,” the March Hare meekly replied
“What a
funny watch!” she remarked
“It tells the day of the month, and doesn’t
tell what o’clock it is!”

“Why should it?” muttered the Hatter
Alice felt dreadfully puzzled, The Hatter’s remark seemed to have no
sort of meaning in it, and yet it was certainly English
“I don’t quite
understand you,” she said, as politely as she could
“The Dormouse is asleep again,” said the Hatter, and he poured a little
hot tea upon its nose
“No, I give it up,” Alice replied: “what’s the answer?”

“I haven’t the slightest idea,” said the Hatter
It’s _him_.”

“I don’t know what you mean,” said Alice
“Of course you don’t!” the Hatter said, tossing his head
contemptuously
“I dare say you never even spoke to Time!”

“Perhaps not,” Alice cautiously replied: “but I know I have to beat
time when I learn music.”

“Ah
that accounts for it,” said the Hatter
Now, if you only kept on good terms with him, he’d do almost anything
you liked with the clock
For instance, suppose it were nine o’clock in
the morning, just time to begin lessons: you’d only have to whisper a
hint to Time, and round goes the clock in a twinkling
The Hatter shook his head mournfully
How I wonder what you’re at!’


You know the song, perhaps?”

“I’ve heard something like it,” said Alice
“It goes on, you know,” the Hatter continued, “in this way:—

‘Up above the world you fly,
Like a tea-tray in the sky
Twinkle, twinkle—’”


Here the Dormouse shook itself, and began singing in its sleep
“_Twinkle, twinkle, twinkle, twinkle_—” and went on so long that they
had to pinch it to make it stop
“Well, I’d hardly finished the first verse,” said the Hatter, “when the
Queen jumped up and bawled out, ‘He’s murdering the time
Off with his
head!’”

“How dreadfully savage!” exclaimed Alice
“And ever since that,” the Hatter went on in a mournful tone, “he won’t
do a thing I ask
It’s always six o’clock now.”

A bright idea came into Alice’s head
“Is that the reason so many
tea-things are put out here?” she asked
“Yes, that’s it,” said the Hatter with a sigh: “it’s always tea-time,
and we’ve no time to wash the things between whiles.”

“Then you keep moving round, I suppose?” said Alice
“Exactly so,” said the Hatter: “as the things get used up.”

“But what happens when you come to the beginning again?” Alice ventured
to ask
“Suppose we change the subject,” the March Hare interrupted, yawning
I vote the young lady tells us a story.”

“I’m afraid I don’t know one,” said Alice, rather alarmed at the
proposal
“Then the Dormouse shall!” they both cried
“Wake up, Dormouse!” And
they pinched it on both sides at once
The Dormouse slowly opened his eyes
“I wasn’t asleep,” he said in a
hoarse, feeble voice: “I heard every word you fellows were saying.”

“Tell us a story!” said the March Hare
“Yes, please do!” pleaded Alice
“They lived on treacle,” said the Dormouse, after thinking a minute or
two
“Who’s making personal remarks now?” the Hatter asked triumphantly
Alice did not quite know what to say to this: so she helped herself to
some tea and bread-and-butter, and then turned to the Dormouse, and
repeated her question
sh!” and the Dormouse sulkily
remarked, “If you can’t be civil, you’d better finish the story for
yourself.”

“No, please go on!” Alice said very humbly; “I won’t interrupt again
I
dare say there may be _one_.”

“One, indeed!” said the Dormouse indignantly
“And so these three little sisters—they were learning to draw,
you know—”

“What did they draw?” said Alice, quite forgetting her promise
“Treacle,” said the Dormouse, without considering at all this time
The Hatter was the only one who got any
advantage from the change: and Alice was a good deal worse off than
before, as the March Hare had just upset the milk-jug into his plate
Alice did not wish to offend the Dormouse again, so she began very
cautiously: “But I don’t understand
“Of course they were,” said the Dormouse; “—well in.”

This answer so confused poor Alice, that she let the Dormouse go on for
some time without interrupting it
“At any rate I’ll never go _there_ again!” said Alice as she picked her
way through the wood
“It’s the stupidest tea-party I ever was at in
all my life!”

Just as she said this, she noticed that one of the trees had a door
leading right into it
“That’s very curious!” she thought
“But
everything’s curious today
I think I may as well go in at once.” And
in she went
Once more she found herself in the long hall, and close to the little
glass table
“Now, I’ll manage better this time,” she said to herself,
and began by taking the little golden key, and unlocking the door that
led into the garden
The Queen’s Croquet-Ground


A large rose-tree stood near the entrance of the garden: the roses
growing on it were white, but there were three gardeners at it, busily
painting them red
Alice thought this a very curious thing, and she
went nearer to watch them, and just as she came up to them she heard
one of them say, “Look out now, Five
Don’t go splashing paint over me
like that!”

“I couldn’t help it,” said Five, in a sulky tone; “Seven jogged my
elbow.”

On which Seven looked up and said, “That’s right, Five
Always lay the
blame on others!”

“_You’d_ better not talk!” said Five
“I heard the Queen say only
yesterday you deserved to be beheaded!”

“What for?” said the one who had spoken first
“That’s none of _your_ business, Two!” said Seven
“Would you tell me,” said Alice, a little timidly, “why you are
painting those roses?”

Five and Seven said nothing, but looked at Two
So
you see, Miss, we’re doing our best, afore she comes, to—” At this
moment Five, who had been anxiously looking across the garden, called
out “The Queen
The Queen!” and the three gardeners instantly threw
themselves flat upon their faces
There was a sound of many footsteps,
and Alice looked round, eager to see the Queen
After these came
the royal children; there were ten of them, and the little dears came
jumping merrily along hand in hand, in couples: they were all
ornamented with hearts
Then followed the Knave of Hearts, carrying
the King’s crown on a crimson velvet cushion; and, last of all this
grand procession, came THE KING AND QUEEN OF HEARTS
When the procession came opposite to Alice, they all stopped and looked
at her, and the Queen said severely “Who is this?” She said it to the
Knave of Hearts, who only bowed and smiled in reply
“How should _I_ know?” said Alice, surprised at her own courage
“It’s
no business of _mine_.”

The Queen turned crimson with fury, and, after glaring at her for a
moment like a wild beast, screamed “Off with her head
Off—”

“Nonsense!” said Alice, very loudly and decidedly, and the Queen was
silent
“Get up!” said the Queen, in a shrill, loud voice, and the three
gardeners instantly jumped up, and began bowing to the King, the Queen,
the royal children, and everybody else
“Leave off that!” screamed the Queen
“Off with their heads!” and the procession moved on, three of the
soldiers remaining behind to execute the unfortunate gardeners, who ran
to Alice for protection
“You shan’t be beheaded!” said Alice, and she put them into a large
flower-pot that stood near
The three soldiers wandered about for a
minute or two, looking for them, and then quietly marched off after the
others
“Are their heads off?” shouted the Queen
“Their heads are gone, if it please your Majesty!” the soldiers shouted
in reply
“That’s right!” shouted the Queen
“Can you play croquet?”

The soldiers were silent, and looked at Alice, as the question was
evidently meant for her
“Come on, then!” roared the Queen, and Alice joined the procession,
wondering very much what would happen next
“It’s—it’s a very fine day!” said a timid voice at her side
She was
walking by the White Rabbit, who was peeping anxiously into her face
“Very,” said Alice: “—where’s the Duchess?”

“Hush
Hush!” said the Rabbit in a low, hurried tone
He looked
anxiously over his shoulder as he spoke, and then raised himself upon
tiptoe, put his mouth close to her ear, and whispered “She’s under
sentence of execution.”

“What for?” said Alice
“Did you say ‘What a pity!’?” the Rabbit asked
“No, I didn’t,” said Alice: “I don’t think it’s at all a pity
I said
‘What for?’”

“She boxed the Queen’s ears—” the Rabbit began
Alice gave a little
scream of laughter
“Oh, hush!” the Rabbit whispered in a frightened
tone
Alice began to feel very uneasy: to be sure, she had not as yet had any
dispute with the Queen, but she knew that it might happen any minute,
“and then,” thought she, “what would become of me
Alice waited till the eyes appeared, and then nodded
The Cat seemed to think that there
was enough of it now in sight, and no more of it appeared
“Who _are_ you talking to?” said the King, going up to Alice, and
looking at the Cat’s head with great curiosity
“Don’t be impertinent,” said the King, “and don’t look at me like
that!” He got behind Alice as he spoke
“A cat may look at a king,” said Alice
“I’ve read that in some book,
but I don’t remember where.”

“Well, it must be removed,” said the King very decidedly, and he called
the Queen, who was passing at the moment, “My dear
I wish you would
have this cat removed!”

The Queen had only one way of settling all difficulties, great or
small
“Off with his head!” she said, without even looking round
“I’ll fetch the executioner myself,” said the King eagerly, and he
hurried off
Alice thought she might as well go back, and see how the game was going
on, as she heard the Queen’s voice in the distance, screaming with
passion
So she went in search of her hedgehog
The King’s argument was, that anything that had a head could be
beheaded, and that you weren’t to talk nonsense
The Queen’s argument was, that if something wasn’t done about it in
less than no time she’d have everybody executed, all round
The Mock Turtle’s Story


“You can’t think how glad I am to see you again, you dear old thing!”
said the Duchess, as she tucked her arm affectionately into Alice’s,
and they walked off together
Alice was very glad to find her in such a pleasant temper, and thought
to herself that perhaps it was only the pepper that had made her so
savage when they met in the kitchen
“When _I’m_ a Duchess,” she said to herself, (not in a very hopeful
tone though), “I won’t have any pepper in my kitchen _at all_
“You’re thinking
about something, my dear, and that makes you forget to talk
I can’t
tell you just now what the moral of that is, but I shall remember it in
a bit.”

“Perhaps it hasn’t one,” Alice ventured to remark
“Tut, tut, child!” said the Duchess
“Everything’s got a moral, if only
you can find it.” And she squeezed herself up closer to Alice’s side as
she spoke
However, she did not like to be rude, so she
bore it as well as she could
“The game’s going on rather better now,” she said, by way of keeping up
the conversation a little
“I dare say you’re wondering why I don’t put my arm round your waist,”
the Duchess said after a pause: “the reason is, that I’m doubtful about
the temper of your flamingo
Shall I try the experiment?”

“He might bite,” Alice cautiously replied, not feeling at all anxious
to have the experiment tried
“Very true,” said the Duchess: “flamingoes and mustard both bite
And
the moral of that is—‘Birds of a feather flock together.’”

“Only mustard isn’t a bird,” Alice remarked
“Right, as usual,” said the Duchess: “what a clear way you have of
putting things!”

“It’s a mineral, I _think_,” said Alice
“Of course it is,” said the Duchess, who seemed ready to agree to
everything that Alice said; “there’s a large mustard-mine near here
And the moral of that is—‘The more there is of mine, the less there is
of yours.’”

“Oh, I know!” exclaimed Alice, who had not attended to this last
remark, “it’s a vegetable
“Pray don’t trouble yourself to say it any longer than that,” said
Alice
“Oh, don’t talk about trouble!” said the Duchess
“I make you a present
of everything I’ve said as yet.”

“A cheap sort of present!” thought Alice
“I’m glad they don’t give
birthday presents like that!” But she did not venture to say it out
loud
“Thinking again?” the Duchess asked, with another dig of her sharp
little chin
“I’ve a right to think,” said Alice sharply, for she was beginning to
feel a little worried
Alice looked up, and there stood the
Queen in front of them, with her arms folded, frowning like a
thunderstorm
“A fine day, your Majesty!” the Duchess began in a low, weak voice
“Now, I give you fair warning,” shouted the Queen, stamping on the
ground as she spoke; “either you or your head must be off, and that in
about half no time
Take your choice!”

The Duchess took her choice, and was gone in a moment
“Let’s go on with the game,” the Queen said to Alice; and Alice was too
much frightened to say a word, but slowly followed her back to the
croquet-ground
Then the Queen left off, quite out of breath, and said to Alice, “Have
you seen the Mock Turtle yet?”

“No,” said Alice
“I don’t even know what a Mock Turtle is.”

“It’s the thing Mock Turtle Soup is made from,” said the Queen
“I never saw one, or heard of one,” said Alice
They very soon came upon a Gryphon, lying fast asleep in the sun
(If
you don’t know what a Gryphon is, look at the picture.) “Up, lazy
thing!” said the Queen, “and take this young lady to see the Mock
Turtle, and to hear his history
I must go back and see after some
executions I have ordered;” and she walked off, leaving Alice alone
with the Gryphon
Alice did not quite like the look of the creature,
but on the whole she thought it would be quite as safe to stay with it
as to go after that savage Queen: so she waited
The Gryphon sat up and rubbed its eyes: then it watched the Queen till
she was out of sight: then it chuckled
“What fun!” said the Gryphon,
half to itself, half to Alice
“What _is_ the fun?” said Alice
“It’s all her fancy, that: they never
executes nobody, you know
“What is his sorrow?” she asked the Gryphon, and the
Gryphon answered, very nearly in the same words as before, “It’s all
his fancy, that: he hasn’t got no sorrow, you know
Come on!”

So they went up to the Mock Turtle, who looked at them with large eyes
full of tears, but said nothing
Alice thought to
herself, “I don’t see how he can _ever_ finish, if he doesn’t begin.”
But she waited patiently
Alice was very nearly getting up and
saying, “Thank you, sir, for your interesting story,” but she could not
help thinking there _must_ be more to come, so she sat still and said
nothing
“When we were little,” the Mock Turtle went on at last, more calmly,
though still sobbing a little now and then, “we went to school in the
sea
The master was an old Turtle—we used to call him Tortoise—”

“Why did you call him Tortoise, if he wasn’t one?” Alice asked
At last the
Gryphon said to the Mock Turtle, “Drive on, old fellow
Don’t be all
day about it!” and he went on in these words:

“Yes, we went to school in the sea, though you mayn’t believe it—”

“I never said I didn’t!” interrupted Alice
“You did,” said the Mock Turtle
“Hold your tongue!” added the Gryphon, before Alice could speak again
“Yes,” said Alice, “we learned French and music.”

“And washing?” said the Mock Turtle
“Certainly not!” said Alice indignantly
then yours wasn’t a really good school,” said the Mock Turtle in a
tone of great relief
“I
only took the regular course.”

“What was that?” inquired Alice
“What is it?”

The Gryphon lifted up both its paws in surprise
Never heard of
uglifying!” it exclaimed
“Well, I can’t show it you myself,” the Mock Turtle said: “I’m too
stiff
And the Gryphon never learnt it.”

“Hadn’t time,” said the Gryphon: “I went to the Classics master,
though
“And how many hours a day did you do lessons?” said Alice, in a hurry
to change the subject
“Ten hours the first day,” said the Mock Turtle: “nine the next, and so
on.”

“What a curious plan!” exclaimed Alice
“Then the eleventh day must have been
a holiday?”

“Of course it was,” said the Mock Turtle
“And how did you manage on the twelfth?” Alice went on eagerly
“That’s enough about lessons,” the Gryphon interrupted in a very
decided tone: “tell her something about the games now.”




CHAPTER X
The Lobster Quadrille


The Mock Turtle sighed deeply, and drew the back of one flapper across
his eyes
He looked at Alice, and tried to speak, but for a minute or
two sobs choked his voice
“Same as if he had a bone in his throat,”
said the Gryphon: and it set to work shaking him and punching him in
the back
“What sort of a dance is it?”

“Why,” said the Gryphon, “you first form into a line along the
sea-shore—”

“Two lines!” cried the Mock Turtle
“Seals, turtles, salmon, and so on;
then, when you’ve cleared all the jelly-fish out of the way—”

“_That_ generally takes some time,” interrupted the Gryphon
“—you advance twice—”

“Each with a lobster as a partner!” cried the Gryphon
“Of course,” the Mock Turtle said: “advance twice, set to partners—”

“—change lobsters, and retire in same order,” continued the Gryphon
“Then, you know,” the Mock Turtle went on, “you throw the—”

“The lobsters!” shouted the Gryphon, with a bound into the air
“—as far out to sea as you can—”

“Swim after them!” screamed the Gryphon
“Turn a somersault in the sea!” cried the Mock Turtle, capering wildly
about
“Change lobsters again!” yelled the Gryphon at the top of its voice
“It must be a very pretty dance,” said Alice timidly
“Would you like to see a little of it?” said the Mock Turtle
“Come, let’s try the first figure!” said the Mock Turtle to the
Gryphon
“We can do without lobsters, you know
Which shall sing?”

“Oh, _you_ sing,” said the Gryphon
“There’s a porpoise close behind us, and he’s treading on my tail
See how eagerly the lobsters and the turtles all advance
Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state with stateless societies and voluntary free associations
Humans have lived in societies without formal hierarchies long before the establishment of states, realms, or empires
With the rise of organised hierarchical bodies, scepticism toward authority also rose
Although traces of anarchist ideas are found all throughout history, modern anarchism emerged from the Enlightenment
Various anarchist schools of thought formed during this period
Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions, most notably in the Paris Commune, the Russian Civil War and the Spanish Civil War, whose end marked the end of the classical era of anarchism
Anarchists employ diverse approaches, which may be generally divided into revolutionary and evolutionary strategies; there is significant overlap between the two
Evolutionary methods try to simulate what an anarchist society might be like, but revolutionary tactics, which have historically taken a violent turn, aim to overthrow authority and the state
Many facets of human civilization have been influenced by anarchist theory, critique, and praxis
The suffix -ism denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy
Anarchism appears in English from 1642 as anarchisme and anarchy from 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder
Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents as anarchists, although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists
The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist () was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century
Since the 1890s and beginning in France, libertarianism has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States
Some usages of libertarianism refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, and free-market anarchism in particular is termed libertarian anarchism
Additionally, some anarchists use libertarian socialist to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasise its connections with socialism
Anarchism is broadly used to describe the anti-authoritarian wing of the socialist movement
Anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms which are state-oriented or from above
Scholars of anarchism generally highlight anarchism's socialist credentials and criticise attempts at creating dichotomies between the two
Some scholars describe anarchism as having many influences from liberalism, and being both liberal and socialist but more so
Many scholars reject anarcho-capitalism as a misunderstanding of anarchist principles
History

Pre-modern era 

Before the creation of towns and cities, established authority did not exist
It was after the institution of authority that anarchistic ideas were espoused as a reaction
The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece
In China, philosophical anarchism (the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou and Laozi
Alongside Stoicism, Taoism has been said to have had "significant anticipations" of anarchism
Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece
Aeschylus and Sophocles used the myth of Antigone to illustrate the conflict between laws imposed by the state and personal autonomy
Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience
Cynics dismissed human law (nomos) and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature (physis)
Stoics were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state
In medieval Europe, there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements
These, and other Muslim movements, later gave birth to religious anarchism
In the Sasanian Empire, Mazdak called for an egalitarian society and the abolition of monarchy, only to be soon executed by Emperor Kavad I
In Basra, religious sects preached against the state
In Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies
Renewed interest in antiquity during the Renaissance and in private judgment during the Reformation restored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism, particularly in France
Modern era 
During the French Revolution, partisan groups such as the Enragés and the  saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments
By the late 1870s, various anarchist schools of thought had become well-defined and a wave of then unprecedented globalisation occurred from 1880 to 1914
This era of classical anarchism lasted until the end of the Spanish Civil War and is considered the golden age of anarchism
The International became a significant political force, with Karl Marx being a leading figure and a member of its General Council
Bakunin's faction (the Jura Federation) and Proudhon's followers (the mutualists) opposed state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings
After bitter disputes, the Bakuninists were expelled from the International by the Marxists at the 1872 Hague Congress
Anarchists were treated similarly in the Second International, being ultimately expelled in 1896
Bakunin famously predicted that if revolutionaries gained power by Marx's terms, they would end up the new tyrants of workers
In response to their expulsion from the First International, anarchists formed the St
Under the influence of Peter Kropotkin, a Russian philosopher and scientist, anarcho-communism overlapped with collectivism
Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 Paris Commune, advocated for free federation and for the distribution of goods according to one's needs
By the turn of the 20th century, anarchism had spread all over the world
It was a notable feature of the international syndicalist movement
In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism
Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from East Asian countries, who moved to the Japanese capital to study
In Latin America, Argentina was a stronghold for anarcho-syndicalism, where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology
During this time, a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary political violence, known as propaganda of the deed
Illegalism was another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period
Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine, before the Bolsheviks crushed the anarchist movement there too
With the anarchists being repressed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely platformism and synthesis anarchism
The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party
In the Spanish Civil War of 1936–39, anarchists and syndicalists (CNT and FAI) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists
A long tradition of Spanish anarchism led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war, and particularly in the Spanish Revolution of 1936
Post-WWII 

By the end of World War II, the anarchist movement had been severely weakened
The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure of Marxism–Leninism and tensions built by the Cold War
It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative anti-capitalist reformism
Anarchism became associated with punk subculture as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols
The established feminist tendencies of anarcha-feminism returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism
Black anarchism began to take form at this time and influenced anarchism's move from a Eurocentric demographic
This coincided with its failure to gain traction in Northern Europe and its unprecedented height in Latin America
Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements
Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Group of Eight and the World Economic Forum
During the protests, ad hoc leaderless anonymous cadres known as black blocs engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confrontations with the police
Other organisational tactics pioneered at this time include affinity groups, security culture and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet
A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the 1999 Seattle WTO conference
While having revolutionary aspirations, many forms of anarchism are not confrontational nowadays
Instead, they are trying to build an alternative way of social organization, based on mutual interdependence and voluntary cooperation
Honeywell also emphasizes that contemporary anarchists are interested in the flourishing not only of humans, but non-humans and the environment as well
Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments since ethics have a central role in anarchist philosophy
Anarchism's emphasis on anti-capitalism, egalitarianism, and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from anarcho-capitalism and other types of economic libertarianism
Anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum
As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview, many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely
Belief in political nihilism has been espoused by anarchists
Classical 

Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were mutualism and individualism
They were followed by the major currents of social anarchism (collectivist, communist and syndicalist)
They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society
Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
Its aims include "abolishing the state", reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation and monetary reform of both credit and currency that would be regulated by a bank of the people
Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism
Collectivist anarchism arose alongside Marxism but rejected the dictatorship of the proletariat despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society
It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin, whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century
The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are direct action, workers' solidarity and workers' self-management
Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants
Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism include William Godwin, Max Stirner, and Henry David Thoreau
Post-classical and contemporary 

Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left
Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement, whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation
As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest
Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches
The anti-capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents
Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence
Its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as anthropology and history to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory
Various anarchist groups, tendencies, and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement
Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists
The principle of equal liberty is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions
This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy
A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other
Evolutionary tactics embrace nonviolence, reject violence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims, although there is significant overlap between the two
Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century
Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches
Classical era 

During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency
Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed terrorism as propaganda of the deed
Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state, some of which were successful
Anarchists also took part in revolutions
Many anarchists, especially the Galleanists, believed that these attempts would be the impetus for a revolution against capitalism and the state
Many of these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s, the early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s
Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further judicial power and targeting and cataloging by state institutions
Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been controversial
Anarcho-pacifists advocate for non-violence means to achieve their stateless, nonviolent ends
Other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of sabotage or terrorism
This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a tyrant and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its oppression by any means possible
Emma Goldman and Errico Malatesta, who were proponents of limited use of violence, stated that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a necessary evil
Anarchists took an active role in strike actions, although they tended to be antipathetic to formal syndicalism, seeing it as reformist
They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism
Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practiced naturism and nudism
Those anarchists also built communities which were based on friendship and were involved in the news media
Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges, terrorism included
Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors
They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as Canada, Greece, and Mexico
Evolutionary 
Anarchists commonly employ direct action
Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as horizontalism
Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience which they will later theorize
The decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role
Anarchists have employed various methods in order to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group
One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point
Minorities usually accept rough consensus, except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals and values
Anarchists usually form small groups (5–20 individuals) to enhance autonomy and friendships among their members
These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other, forming larger networks
Anarchists still support and participate in strikes, especially wildcat strikes as these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by a syndicate
As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, and anarchists have gone online in the World Wide Web to spread their message
Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals
Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free
The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance
Anarchists organize themselves to squat and reclaim public spaces
As seen by anarchists, squatting is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market, serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action
Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds
Key issues 

As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of thought; disagreement over questions of values, ideology, and tactics is common
Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of definitional concerns in anarchist theory
Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest, veganism, or any number of alternative ethical doctrines
Phenomena such as civilisation, technology (e.g
within anarcho-primitivism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others
The state 

Objection to the state and its institutions is a sine qua non of anarchism
Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies
Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite
Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is open or transparent, as it still has the ability to coerce people
Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption
Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the ruling class is distinct from the rest of society
Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary
Robert Paul Wolff believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate
Bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be." A
John Simmons and Leslie Green, who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely
Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ
Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing
Sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker, who opposed age of consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men
A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was free love
In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support polyamory, relationship anarchy, and queer anarchism
Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men
The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure
Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together
Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love
Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, and pro-choice (utilising a contemporary term), and had a similar agenda
Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on suffrage but were supportive of one another
During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the second wave of feminism, radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well
With the third wave of feminism, sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject of study for anarchists, yielding a post-structuralist critique of sexual normality
Some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation
Education 

The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism
Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of mutual aid
Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process whilst giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance
Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to foster class consciousness among students
The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later arrested
Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools around the world
Neill founded what became the Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion
Contemporary anarchists such as Ward claim that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality
In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the New Apocalyptics and the neo-romanticism movement
In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk
Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends
Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists
It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests
As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect
The 19th-century neo-impressionist movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road towards socialism
In Les chataigniers a Osny by anarchist painter Camille Pissarro, the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community
Criticism 
The most common critique of anarchism is the assertion that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary for human survival
Another criticism of anarchism is the belief that it is inherently unstable: that an anarchist society would inevitably evolve back into a state
Thomas Hobbes and other early social contract theorists argued that the state emerges in response to natural anarchy in order to protect the people's interests and keep order
Anarchists reject these criticisms by arguing that humans in a state of nature would not just be in a state of war
Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state cannot be defeated practically
This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it
The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory as a ruling theory that has no ruling theory
Anarchism also calls for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken
Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong
Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A
John Simmons' Moral Principles and Political Obligations
Edmundson authored an essay to argue against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious
Edmundson says that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate
Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success
Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction
Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state, and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, respectively
Classical anarchism has been criticised for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering
Academic John Molyneux writes in his book Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism that "anarchism cannot win", believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas
The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values
According to the Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence
Marxists state that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act
In the anarchist vision, the conflict between liberty and equality was resolved through coexistence and intertwining
A defence of philosophical anarchism, stating that "both kinds of 'anarchism' [i.e
philosophical and political anarchism] are philosophical and political claims." (p
137)
  Anarchistic popular fiction novel
An argument for philosophical anarchism
External links 

 
 Anarchy Archives – an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism
It is measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation)
Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity Je to the irradiance Ee (flux per unit area) received by a surface
The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface
These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location, and time (see position of the Sun)
The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages
Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation
Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm)
Ice–albedo feedback is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of ice caps, glaciers, and sea ice alters the albedo and surface temperature of a planet
Ice is very reflective, therefore it reflects far more solar energy back to space than the other types of land area or open water
Ice–albedo feedback plays an important role in global climate change
Albedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental management
Terrestrial albedo

Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances
Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body
When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms
Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4
The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3
This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds
BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo
Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the greenhouse effect is currently about
If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below
If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about
In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water – a so-called ocean planet – the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost
In 2021, scientists reported that Earth dimmed by ~0.5% over two decades (1998–2017) as measured by earthshine using modern photometric techniques
This may have both been co-caused by climate change as well as a substantial increase in global warming
However, the link to climate change has not been explored to date and it is unclear whether or not this represents an ongoing trend
Human activities

Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe
The tens of thousands of hectares of greenhouses in Almería, Spain form a large expanse of whitened plastic roofs
A 2008 study found that this anthropogenic change lowered the local surface area temperature of the high-albedo area, although changes were localized
A follow-up study found that "CO2-eq
emissions associated to changes in surface albedo are a consequence of land transformation" and can reduce surface temperature increases associated with climate change
It has been found that urbanization generally decreases albedo (commonly being 0.01–0.02 lower than adjacent croplands), which contributes to global warming
Deliberately increasing albedo in urban areas can mitigate urban heat island
Efforts toward widespread implementation of PDRCs may focus on maximizing the albedo of surfaces from very low to high values, so long as a thermal emittance of at least 90% can be achieved
through melting of reflective ice)
That said, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude
Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics
Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation
Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth
This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect
Climate and weather

Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs
The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather
The response of the climate system to an initial forcing is modified by feedbacks: increased by "self-reinforcing" or "positive" feedbacks and reduced by "balancing" or "negative" feedbacks
The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water-vapour feedback, the ice–albedo feedback, and the net effect of clouds
Albedo–temperature feedback

When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature feedback results
A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling
However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting
Snow
Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow
Over Antarctica snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8
Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water
Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow
The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts
As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback
Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important for global warming
Cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets
The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates
Small-scale effects
Albedo works on a smaller scale, too
Solar photovoltaic effects 
Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices
Research showed impacts of over 10% for vertically (90°) mounted systems, but such effects were substantially lower for systems with lower surface tilts
Spectral albedo strongly affects the performance of bifacial solar cells where rear surface performance gains of over 20% have been observed for c-Si cells installed above healthy vegetation
Trees

Forests generally have a low albedo because the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis
For this reason, the greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation)
In other words: The climate change mitigation effect of carbon sequestration by forests is partially counterbalanced in that reforestation can decrease the reflection of sunlight (albedo)
In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect
Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration
The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds
Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate
Mid-to-high-latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, thus contributing to warming
Modeling that compares the effects of albedo differences between forests and grasslands suggests that expanding the land area of forests in temperate zones offers only a temporary mitigation benefit
In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily
Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15
The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy
Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests
They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming
Water

Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials
The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations
At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely)
The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this
At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle
However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction
Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities
Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection
Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9
Clouds
Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures
Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8
"On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water
Aerosol effects
Aerosols (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance
The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain
the effects are:
 Aerosol direct effect
Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation
The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming
Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called cloud condensation nuclei
In extremely polluted cities like Delhi, aerosol pollutants influence local weather and induce an urban cool island effect during the day
Black carbon
Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles
Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo
Astronomical albedo 
In astronomy, the term albedo can be defined in several different ways, depending upon the application and the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation involved
Optical or visual albedo
The albedos of planets, satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties
The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time composes a major part of the astronomical field of photometry
For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos
Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known optical albedos of any body in the Solar System, with an albedo of 0.99
Another notable high-albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 0.96
Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05
A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04
Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds
The overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.14, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect
Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies
Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion
One of these five parameters is yet another type of albedo called the single-scattering albedo
It is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles
It depends on properties of the material (refractive index), the size of the particle, and the wavelength of the incoming radiation
Radar albedo
In planetary radar astronomy, a microwave (or radar) pulse is transmitted toward a planetary target (e.g
Moon, asteroid, etc.) and the echo from the target is measured
In most instances, the transmitted pulse is circularly polarized and the received pulse is measured in the same sense of polarization as the transmitted pulse (SC) and the opposite sense (OC)
If the surface is rough at the wavelength scale or there is significant penetration into the regolith, there will be a significant SC component in the echo caused by multiple scattering
A smooth metallic sphere would have
Radar albedos of Solar System objects

The values reported for the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Venus, and Comet P/2005 JQ5 are derived from the total (OC+SC) radar albedo reported in those references
History 
The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria
Its name in English is a (pronounced ), plural aes
It is similar in shape to the Ancient Greek letter Alpha, from which it derives
The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar
The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the double-storey a and single-storey ɑ
The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type
In English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", are indefinite articles
In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended
The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter unchanged
Typographic variants 

During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter "A"
First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other "permanent" media
There was also a cursive style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces
Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles
The known variants include the early semi-uncial, the uncial, and the later semi-uncial
At the end of the Roman Empire (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe
By the ninth century, the Caroline script, which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press
This form was derived through a combining of prior forms
15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today
These variants, the Italic and Roman forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version
The Italic form, also called script a, is used in most current handwriting; it consists of a circle and vertical stroke on the right ("ɑ")
This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter tau in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers
The Roman form is used in most printed material; it consists of a small loop with an arc over it ("a")
Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form
In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown
Many fonts then made the right leg vertical
In some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form
Graphic designers refer to the Italic and Roman forms as "single decker a" and "double decker a" respectively
Italic type is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest (set in Roman type)
There are some other cases aside from italic type where script a ("ɑ"), also called Latin alpha, is used in contrast with Latin "a" (such as in the International Phonetic Alphabet)
The double  sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as Aaron and aardvark
However,  occurs in many common digraphs, all with their own sound or sounds, particularly , , , ,  and
is the third-most-commonly used letter in English (after  and ) and French, the second most common in Spanish, and the most common in Portuguese
About 8.167% of letters used in English texts tend to be ; the number is around 7.636% in French, 11.525% in Spanish, and 14.634% for Portuguese
Other languages 
In most languages that use the Latin alphabet,  denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as , , or
An exception is Saanich, in which  (and the glyph Á) stands for a close-mid front unrounded vowel
in X-SAMPA,  is used for the open front unrounded vowel and  is used for the open back unrounded vowel
Other uses 

In algebra, the letter a along with various other letters of the alphabet is often used to denote a variable, with various conventional meanings in different areas of mathematics
In geometry, capital A, B, C etc
are used to denote segments, lines, rays, etc
A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a triangle, the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A
Such associations can have a motivating effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters
"A" is used as a prefix on some words, such as asymmetry, to mean "not" or "without" (from Greek)
In English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", is an indefinite article, used to introduce noun phrases
Finally, the letter A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a brassiere
Alabama is the 30th largest by area and the 24th-most populous of the U.S
Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird
Alabama is also known as the "Heart of Dixie" and the "Cotton State"
The state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia
Alabama's capital is Montgomery, and its largest city by population and area is Huntsville
Its oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists (Alabama Creoles) in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana
Greater Birmingham is Alabama's largest metropolitan area and its economic center
Originally home to many native tribes, present-day Alabama was a Spanish territory beginning in the sixteenth century until the French acquired it in the early eighteenth century
The British won the territory in 1763 until losing it in the American Revolutionary War
Spain held Mobile as part of Spanish West Florida until 1813
In December 1819, Alabama was recognized as a state
During the antebellum period, Alabama was a major producer of cotton, and widely used African American slave labor
In 1861, the state seceded from the United States to become part of the Confederate States of America, with Montgomery acting as its first capital, and rejoined the Union in 1868
Following the American Civil War, Alabama would suffer decades of economic hardship, in part due to agriculture and a few cash crops being the main driver of the state's economy
Similar to other former slave states, Alabamian legislators employed Jim Crow laws from the late 19th century up until the 1960s
High-profile events such as the Selma to Montgomery march made the state a major focal point of the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s
During and after World War II, Alabama grew as the state's economy diversified with new industries
NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville would help Alabama's economic growth in the mid-to-late 20th century, by developing an aerospace industry
Alabama's economy in the 21st century is based on automotive, finance, tourism, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, and technology
The state's geography is diverse, with the north dominated by the mountainous Tennessee Valley and the south by Mobile Bay, a historically significant port
Politically, as part of the Deep South, Alabama is predominantly a conservative state, and is known for its Southern culture
Within Alabama, American football, particularly at the college level, plays a major part of the state's culture
In the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is  (or variously  or  in different dialects; the plural form is )
The word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources
As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the , with French maps identifying the river as
Other spellings of the name have included Alibamu, Alabamo, Albama, Alebamon, Alibama, Alibamou, Alabamu, and Allibamou
The use of state names derived from Native American languages is common in the U.S.; an estimated 26 states have names of Native American origin
Sources disagree on the word's meaning
Some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw  (meaning 'plants' or 'weeds') and  (meaning 'to cut', 'to trim', or 'to gather')
The meaning may have been 'clearers of the thicket' or 'herb gatherers', referring to clearing land for cultivation or collecting medicinal plants
The state has numerous place names of Native American origin
An 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant 'Here We Rest'
This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek
Experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation
History

Pre-European settlement 

Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization
Trade with the northeastern tribes by the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period (1000BCE700CE) and continued until European contact
The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 CE, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama
This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, which was the center of the culture
Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars' formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC)
Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no direct links to Mesoamerican culture but developed independently
The Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples; it is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood
While part of the same large language family, the Muskogee tribes developed distinct cultures and languages
European settlement 

The Spanish were the first Europeans to reach Alabama during their exploration of North America in the 16th century
The expedition of Hernando de Soto passed through Mabila and other parts of the state in 1540
More than 160 years later, the French founded the region's first European settlement at Old Mobile in 1702
The city was moved to the current site of Mobile in 1711
This area was claimed by the French from 1702 to 1763 as part of La Louisiane
After the French lost to the British in the Seven Years' War, it became part of British West Florida from 1763 to 1783
After the United States victory in the American Revolutionary War, the territory was divided between the United States and Spain
The latter retained control of this western territory from 1783 until the surrender of the Spanish garrison at Mobile to U.S
Thomas Bassett, a loyalist to the British monarchy during the Revolutionary era, was one of the earliest white settlers in the state outside Mobile
He settled in the Tombigbee District during the early 1770s
Most of what is now the northern two-thirds of Alabama was known as the Yazoo lands beginning during the British colonial period
It was claimed by the Province of Georgia from 1767 onwards
Following the Revolutionary War, it remained a part of Georgia, although heavily disputed
With the exception of the area around Mobile and the Yazoo lands, what is now the lower one-third of Alabama was made part of the Mississippi Territory when it was organized in 1798
The Yazoo lands were added to the territory in 1804, following the Yazoo land scandal
Spain kept a claim on its former Spanish West Florida territory in what would become the coastal counties until the Adams–Onís Treaty officially ceded it to the United States in 1819
19th century 

Before Mississippi's admission to statehood on December 10, 1817, the more sparsely settled eastern half of the territory was separated and named the Alabama Territory
The United States Congress created the Alabama Territory on March 3, 1817
Stephens, now abandoned, served as the territorial capital from 1817 to 1819
Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state on December 14, 1819, with Congress selecting Huntsville as the site for the first Constitutional Convention
From July5 to August 2, 1819, delegates met to prepare the new state constitution
Huntsville served as temporary capital from 1819 to 1820, when the seat of government moved to Cahaba in Dallas County
Cahaba, now a ghost town, was the first permanent state capital from 1820 to 1825
Part of the frontier in the 1820s and 1830s, its constitution provided for universal suffrage for white men
Southeastern planters and traders from the Upper South brought slaves with them as the cotton plantations in Alabama expanded
The economy of the central Black Belt (named for its dark, productive soil) was built around large cotton plantations whose owners' wealth grew mainly from slave labor
The area also drew many poor, disenfranchised people who became subsistence farmers
Alabama had an estimated population of under 10,000 people in 1810, but it increased to more than 300,000 people by 1830
Most Native American tribes were completely removed from the state within a few years of the passage of the Indian Removal Act by Congress in 1830
From 1826 to 1846, Tuscaloosa served as Alabama's capital
On January 30, 1846, the Alabama legislature announced it had voted to move the capital city from Tuscaloosa to Montgomery
The first legislative session in the new capital met in December 1847
A new capitol building was erected under the direction of Stephen Decatur Button of Philadelphia
The first structure burned down in 1849, but was rebuilt on the same site in 1851
This second capitol building in Montgomery remains to the present day
It was designed by Barachias Holt of Exeter, Maine
Civil War and Reconstruction 

By 1860, the population had increased to 964,201 people, of which nearly half, 435,080, were enslaved African Americans, and 2,690 were free people of color
On January 11, 1861, Alabama declared its secession from the Union
After remaining an independent republic for a few days, it joined the Confederate States of America
The Confederacy's capital was initially at Montgomery
Alabama was heavily involved in the American Civil War
Although comparatively few battles were fought in the state, Alabama contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the war effort
A company of cavalry soldiers from Huntsville, Alabama, joined Nathan Bedford Forrest's battalion in Hopkinsville, Kentucky
The company wore new uniforms with yellow trim on the sleeves, collar and coattails
This led to them being greeted with "Yellowhammer", and the name later was applied to all Alabama troops in the Confederate Army
Alabama's slaves were freed by the 13th Amendment in 1865
Alabama was under military rule from the end of the war in May 1865 until its official restoration to the Union in 1868
From 1867 to 1874, with most white citizens barred temporarily from voting and freedmen enfranchised, many African Americans emerged as political leaders in the state
Alabama was represented in Congress during this period by three African-American congressmen: Jeremiah Haralson, Benjamin S
Following the war, the state remained chiefly agricultural, with an economy tied to cotton
During Reconstruction, state legislators ratified a new state constitution in 1868 which created the state's first public school system and expanded women's rights
Legislators funded numerous public road and railroad projects, although these were plagued with allegations of fraud and misappropriation
Organized insurgent, resistance groups tried to suppress the freedmen and Republicans
Besides the short-lived original Ku Klux Klan, these included the Pale Faces, Knights of the White Camellia, Red Shirts, and the White League
Reconstruction in Alabama ended in 1874, when the Democrats regained control of the legislature and governor's office through an election dominated by fraud and violence
They wrote another constitution in 1875, and the legislature passed the Blaine Amendment, prohibiting public money from being used to finance religious-affiliated schools
The same year, legislation was approved that called for racially segregated schools
Railroad passenger cars were segregated in 1891
The 1901 constitution required racial segregation of public schools
By 1903 only 2,980 African Americans were registered in Alabama, although at least 74,000 were literate
This compared to more than 181,000 African Americans eligible to vote in 1900
The numbers dropped even more in later decades
By 1941, whites constituted a slight majority of those disenfranchised by these laws: 600,000 whites vs
Nearly all Blacks had lost the ability to vote
Despite numerous legal challenges which succeeded in overturning certain provisions, the state legislature would create new ones to maintain disenfranchisement
The exclusion of blacks from the political system persisted until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in 1965 to enforce their constitutional rights as citizens
The rural-dominated Alabama legislature consistently underfunded schools and services for the disenfranchised African Americans, but it did not relieve them of paying taxes
Partially as a response to chronic underfunding of education for African Americans in the South, the Rosenwald Fund began funding the construction of what came to be known as Rosenwald Schools
In Alabama, these schools were designed, and the construction partially financed with Rosenwald funds, which paid one-third of the construction costs
The fund required the local community and state to raise matching funds to pay the rest
Black residents effectively taxed themselves twice, by raising additional monies to supply matching funds for such schools, which were built in many rural areas
They often donated land and labor as well
Beginning in 1913, the first 80 Rosenwald Schools were built in Alabama for African American children
A total of 387 schools, seven teachers' houses, and several vocational buildings were completed by 1937 in the state
Several of the surviving school buildings in the state are now listed on the National Register of Historic Places
Reflecting this emigration, the population growth rate in Alabama (see "historical populations" table below) dropped by nearly half from 1910 to 1920
At the same time, many rural people migrated to the city of Birmingham to work in new industrial jobs
Birmingham experienced such rapid growth it was called the "Magic City"
By 1920, Birmingham was the 36th-largest city in the United States
Heavy industry and mining were the basis of its economy
This did not change until the late 1960s following a lawsuit and court order
Industrial development related to the demands of World War II brought a level of prosperity to the state not seen since before the civil war
Rural workers poured into the largest cities in the state for better jobs and a higher standard of living
One example of this massive influx of workers occurred in Mobile
Between 1940 and 1943, more than 89,000 people moved into the city to work for war-related industries
Cotton and other cash crops faded in importance as the state developed a manufacturing and service base
They held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas
Urban interests were consistently underrepresented in the legislature
African Americans continued to press in the 1950s and 1960s to end disenfranchisement and segregation in the state through the civil rights movement, including legal challenges
Board of Education that public schools had to be desegregated, but Alabama was slow to comply
During the 1960s, under Governor George Wallace, Alabama resisted compliance with federal demands for desegregation
The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama, including the Montgomery bus boycott (1955–1956), Freedom Rides in 1961, and 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches
These contributed to Congressional passage and enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 by the U.S
Legal segregation ended in the states in 1964, but Jim Crow customs often continued until specifically challenged in court
According to The New York Times, by 2017, many of Alabama's African Americans were living in Alabama's cities such as Birmingham and Montgomery
Also, the Black Belt region across central Alabama "is home to largely poor counties that are predominantly African-American
These counties include Dallas, Lowndes, Marengo and Perry."

In 1972, for the first time since 1901, the legislature completed the congressional redistricting based on the decennial census
This benefited the urban areas that had developed, as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than sixty years
Other changes were made to implement representative state house and senate districts
Alabama has made some changes since the late 20th century and has used new types of voting to increase representation
In the 1980s, an omnibus redistricting case, Dillard v
Crenshaw County, challenged the at-large voting for representative seats of 180 Alabama jurisdictions, including counties and school boards
At-large voting had diluted the votes of any minority in a county, as the majority tended to take all seats
Despite African Americans making up a significant minority in the state, they had been unable to elect any representatives in most of the at-large jurisdictions
As part of settlement of this case, five Alabama cities and counties, including Chilton County, adopted a system of cumulative voting for election of representatives in multi-seat jurisdictions
This has resulted in more proportional representation for voters
In another form of proportional representation, 23 jurisdictions use limited voting, as in Conecuh County
In 1982, limited voting was first tested in Conecuh County
Together use of these systems has increased the number of African Americans and women being elected to local offices, resulting in governments that are more representative of their citizens
Beginning in the 1960s, the state's economy shifted away from its traditional lumber, steel, and textile industries because of increased foreign competition
Steel jobs, for instance, declined from 46,314 in 1950 to 14,185 in 2011
However, the state, particularly Huntsville, benefited from the opening of the George C
Marshall Space Flight Center in 1960, a major facility in the development of the Saturn rocket program and the space shuttle
21st century 
In 2001, Alabama Supreme Court chief justice Roy Moore installed a statue of the Ten Commandments in the capitol in Montgomery
In 2002, the 11th US Circuit Court ordered the statue removed, but Moore refused to follow the court order, which led to protests around the capitol in favor of keeping the monument
The monument was removed in August 2003
A few natural disasters have occurred in the state in the twenty-first century
In 2004, Hurricane Ivan, a category 3 storm upon landfall, struck the state and caused over $18 billion of damage
It was among the most destructive storms to strike the state in its modern history
A super outbreak of 62 tornadoes hit the state in April 2011 and killed 238 people, devastating many communities
About three-fifths of the land area is part of the Gulf Coastal Plain, a gentle plain with a general descent towards the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico
The North Alabama region is mostly mountainous, with the Tennessee River cutting a large valley and creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes
Alabama is bordered by the states of Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida to the south, and Mississippi to the west
Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southern edge of the state
The state ranges in elevation from sea level at Mobile Bay to more than  in the northeast, to Mount Cheaha at
Alabama's land consists of  of forest or 67% of the state's total land area
Suburban Baldwin County, along the Gulf Coast, is the largest county in the state in both land area and water area
Additionally, Alabama has four National Forests: Conecuh, Talladega, Tuskegee, and William B
Alabama also contains the Natchez Trace Parkway, the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail, and the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail
A -wide meteorite impact crater is located in Elmore County, just north of Montgomery
This is the Wetumpka crater, the site of "Alabama's greatest natural disaster"
A -wide meteorite hit the area about 80 million years ago
In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as the 157th recognized impact crater on Earth
Climate 

The state is classified as humid subtropical (Cfa) under the Koppen Climate Classification
The average annual temperature is 64°F (18°C)
Generally, Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout the year
Alabama receives an average of  of rainfall annually and enjoys a lengthy growing season of up to 300 days in the southern part of the state
Summers in Alabama are among the hottest in the U.S., with high temperatures averaging over  throughout the summer in some parts of the state
Alabama is also prone to tropical storms and hurricanes
Areas of the state far away from the Gulf are not immune to the effects of the storms, which often dump tremendous amounts of rain as they move inland and weaken
South Alabama reports many thunderstorms
The Gulf Coast, around Mobile Bay, averages between 70 and 80 days per year with thunder reported
This activity decreases somewhat further north in the state, but even the far north of the state reports thunder on about 60 days per year
Occasionally, thunderstorms are severe with frequent lightning and large hail; the central and northern parts of the state are most vulnerable to this type of storm
Alabama ranks ninth in the number of deaths from lightning and tenth in the number of deaths from lightning strikes per capita
Several long-tracked F5/EF5 tornadoes have contributed to Alabama reporting more tornado fatalities since 1950 than any other state
The state was affected by the 1974 Super Outbreak and was devastated tremendously by the 2011 Super Outbreak
The 2011 Super Outbreak produced a record amount of tornadoes in the state
The peak season for tornadoes varies from the northern to southern parts of the state
Alabama is one of the few places in the world that has a secondary tornado season in November and December besides the typically severe spring
The northern part—along the Tennessee River Valley—is most vulnerable
The area of Alabama and Mississippi most affected by tornadoes is sometimes referred to as Dixie Alley, as distinct from the Tornado Alley of the Southern Plains
Winters are generally mild in Alabama, as they are throughout most of the Southeastern United States, with average January low temperatures around  in Mobile and around  in Birmingham
Historic snowfall events include New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm and the 1993 Storm of the Century
The annual average snowfall for the Birmingham area is  per year
In the southern Gulf coast, snowfall is less frequent, sometimes going several years without any snowfall
Alabama's highest temperature of  was recorded on September 5, 1925, in the unincorporated community of Centerville
The record low of  occurred on January 30, 1966, in New Market
The state is usually ranked among the top in nation for its range of overall biodiversity
Alabama is in the subtropical coniferous forest biome and once boasted huge expanses of pine forest, which still form the largest proportion of forests in the state
It currently ranks fifth in the nation for the diversity of its flora
It is home to nearly 4,000 pteridophyte and spermatophyte plant species
Invertebrates include 97 crayfish species and 383 mollusk species
113 of these mollusk species have never been collected outside the state
This includes a natural increase since the last census of 121,054 (502,457 births minus 381,403 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 104,991 into the state
Immigration from outside the U.S
resulted in a net increase of 31,180 people, and migration within the country produced a net gain of 73,811 people
The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were undocumented (24,000)
Alabama has the 5th highest African American population among US states at 25.8% as of 2020
The center of population of Alabama is located in Chilton County, outside the town of Jemison
According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 3,752 homeless people in Alabama
Demographers estimate that a minimum of 20–23% of people in Alabama are of predominantly English ancestry and state that the figure is probably much higher
In 2011, 46.6% of Alabama's population younger than age1 were minorities
The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama are American (13.4%), Irish (10.5%), English (10.2%), German (7.9%), and Scots-Irish (2.5%) based on 2006-2008 Census data
The Scots-Irish were the largest non-English immigrant group from the British Isles before the American Revolution, and many settled in the South, later moving into the Deep South as it was developed
In 1984, under the Davis–Strong Act, the state legislature established the Alabama Indian Affairs Commission
Native American groups within the state had increasingly been demanding recognition as ethnic groups and seeking an end to discrimination
In the past, their self-identification was often overlooked as the state tried to impose a binary breakdown of society into white and black
The state has officially recognized nine American Indian tribes in the state, descended mostly from the Five Civilized Tribes of the American Southeast
Language 
Most Alabama residents (95.1% of those five and older) spoke only English at home in 2010, a minor decrease from 96.1% in 2000
Alabama English is predominantly Southern, and is related to South Midland speech which was taken across the border from Tennessee
In the major Southern speech region, there is the decreasing loss of the final r, for example the "boyd" pronunciation of "bird"
In the northern third of the state, there is a South Midland "arm" and "barb" rhyming with "form" and "orb", respectively
Religion 

In the 2008 American Religious Identification Survey, 86% of Alabama respondents reported their religion as Christian, including 6% Catholic, with 11% as having no religion
The composition of other traditions is 0.5% Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, 0.5% Buddhist, and 0.5% Hindu
Alabama is located in the middle of the Bible Belt, a region of numerous Protestant Christians
Alabama has been identified as one of the most religious states in the United States, with about 58% of the population attending church regularly
A majority of people in the state identify as Evangelical Protestant
, the three largest denominational groups in Alabama are the Southern Baptist Convention, The United Methodist Church, and non-denominational Evangelical Protestant
Many Baptist and Methodist congregations became established in the Great Awakening of the early 19th century, when preachers proselytized across the South
The Assemblies of God had almost 60,000 members, the Churches of Christ had nearly 120,000 members
In a 2007 survey, nearly 70% of respondents could name all four of the Christian Gospels
Of those who indicated a religious preference, 59% said they possessed a "full understanding" of their faith and needed no further learning
In a 2007 poll, 92% of Alabamians reported having at least some confidence in churches in the state
Although in much smaller numbers, many other religious faiths are represented in the state as well, including Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, the Baháʼí Faith, and Unitarian Universalism
Jews have been present in what is now Alabama since 1763, during the colonial era of Mobile, when Sephardic Jews immigrated from London
The oldest Jewish congregation in the state is Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim in Mobile
It was formally recognized by the state legislature on January 25, 1844
Later immigrants in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries tended to be Ashkenazi Jews from eastern Europe
Jewish denominations in the state include two Orthodox, four Conservative, ten Reform, and one Humanistic synagogue
Muslims have been increasing in Alabama, with 31 mosques built by 2011, many by African-American converts
There are six Dharma centers and organizations for Theravada Buddhists
Most monastic Buddhist temples are concentrated in southern Mobile County, near Bayou La Batre
This area has attracted an influx of refugees from Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam during the 1970s and thereafter
The four temples within a ten-mile radius of Bayou La Batre, include Chua Chanh Giac, Wat Buddharaksa, and Wat Lao Phoutthavihan
The first community of adherents of the Baháʼí Faith in Alabama was founded in 1896 by Paul K
Dealy, who moved from Chicago to Fairhope
Baháʼí centers in Alabama exist in Birmingham, Huntsville, and Florence
Health 
In 2018, life expectancy in Alabama was 75.1 years, below the national average of 78.7 years and is the third lowest life expectancy in the country
Factors that can cause lower life expectancy are maternal mortality, suicide, and gun crimes
Residents of the state, along with those in five other states, were least likely in the nation to be physically active during leisure time
Alabama, and the southeastern U.S
in general, has one of the highest incidences of adult onset diabetes in the country, exceeding 10% of adults
Economy 

The state has invested in aerospace, education, health care, banking, and various heavy industries, including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, steel production and fabrication
By 2006, crop and animal production in Alabama was valued at $1.5billion
In contrast to the primarily agricultural economy of the previous century, this was only about one percent of the state's gross domestic product
The number of private farms has declined at a steady rate since the 1960s, as land has been sold to developers, timber companies, and large farming conglomerates
Bureau of Economic Analysis, the 2008 total gross state product was $170billion, or $29,411 per capita
Alabama's 2012 GDP increased 1.2% from the previous year
The single largest increase came in the area of information
In 2010, per capita income for the state was $22,984
The state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 5.8% in April 2015
This compared to a nationwide seasonally adjusted rate of 5.4%
Alabama has no minimum wage and in February 2016 passed legislation preventing municipalities from setting one
(A Birmingham city ordinance would have raised theirs to $10.10.)

, Alabama has the sixth highest poverty rate among states in the U.S
In 2017, United Nations Special Rapporteur Philip Alston toured parts of rural Alabama and observed environmental conditions he said were poorer than anywhere he had seen in the developed world
Although known as "The Cotton State", Alabama ranks between eighth and tenth in national cotton production, according to various reports, with Texas, Georgia and Mississippi comprising the top three
Aquaculture 

Aquaculture is a large part of the economy of Alabama
Alabamians began to practice aquaculture in the early 1960s
farm-raised catfish is the 8th most popular seafood product in America
By 2008, approximately 4,000 people in Alabama were employed by the catfish industry and Alabama produced 132 million pounds of catfish
In 2020, Alabama produced  of the United States' farm-raised catfish
The total 2020 sales of catfish raised in Alabama equaled $307 million but by 2020 the total employment of Alabamians fell to 2,442
From the early 2000s to 2020, the Alabamian catfish industry has declined from 250 farms and 4 processors to 66 farms and 2 processors
Reasons for this decline include increased feed prices, catfish alternatives, COVID-19's impact on restaurant sales, disease, and fish size
In addition, Alabama produces aerospace and electronic products, mostly in the Huntsville area, the location of NASA's George C
Marshall Space Flight Center and the U.S
Army Materiel Command, headquartered at Redstone Arsenal
A great deal of Alabama's economic growth since the 1990s has been due to the state's expanding automotive manufacturing industry
Located in the state are Honda Manufacturing of Alabama, Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama, Mercedes-Benz U.S
International, and Toyota Motor Manufacturing Alabama, as well as their various suppliers
Since 1993, the automobile industry has generated more than 67,800 new jobs in the state
Alabama currently ranks 4th in the nation for vehicle exports
Automakers accounted for approximately a third of the industrial expansion in the state in 2012
The eight models produced at the state's auto factories totaled combined sales of 74,335 vehicles for 2012
The strongest model sales during this period were the Hyundai Elantra compact car, the Mercedes-Benz GL-Class sport utility vehicle and the Honda Ridgeline sport utility truck
Steel producers Outokumpu, Nucor, SSAB, ThyssenKrupp, and U.S
Steel have facilities in Alabama and employ more than 10,000 people
In May 2007, German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp selected Calvert in Mobile County for a 4.65billion combined stainless and carbon steel processing facility
ThyssenKrupp's stainless steel division, Inoxum, including the stainless portion of the Calvert plant, was sold to Finnish stainless steel company Outokumpu in 2012
The remaining portion of the ThyssenKrupp plant had final bids submitted by ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel for $1.6billion in March 2013
Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional submitted a combined bid for the mill at Calvert, plus a majority stake in the ThyssenKrupp mill in Brazil, for $3.8billion
In July 2013, the plant was sold to ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel
The Hunt Refining Company, a subsidiary of Hunt Consolidated, Inc., is based in Tuscaloosa and operates a refinery there
The company also operates terminals in Mobile, Melvin, and Moundville
operates an optical disc replication and packaging plant in Tuscaloosa
The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company operates a large plant in Gadsden which employs about 1,400 people
It has been in operation since 1929
Construction of an Airbus A320 family aircraft assembly plant in Mobile was formally announced by Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier from the Mobile Convention Center on July 2, 2012
The plans include a $600million factory at the Brookley Aeroplex for the assembly of the A319, A320 and A321 aircraft
It was announced on February 1, 2013, that Airbus had hired Alabama-based Hoar Construction to oversee construction of the facility
The factory officially opened on September 14, 2015, covering one million square feet on 53 acres of flat grassland
Tourism and entertainment 

According to Business Insider, Alabama ranked 14th in most popular states to visit in 2014
Mobile is known for having the oldest organized Mardi Gras celebration in the United States, beginning in 1703
It was also host to the first formally organized Mardi Gras parade in the United States in 1830, a tradition that continues to this day
Mardi Gras is an official state holiday in Mobile and Baldwin counties
In 2018, Mobile's Mardi Gras parade was the state's top event, producing the most tourists with an attendance of 892,811
Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville with an attendance of 849,981, followed by the Birmingham Zoo with 543,090
Of the parks and natural destinations, Alabama's Gulf Coast topped the list with 6,700,000 visitors
Alabama has historically been a popular region for film shoots due to its diverse landscapes and contrast of environments
Movies filmed in Alabama include: Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Get Out, 42, Selma, Big Fish, The Final Destination, Due Date, Need For Speed and many more
Healthcare 
UAB Hospital, USA Health University Hospital, Huntsville Hospital, and Children's Hospital of Alabama are the only LevelI trauma centers in Alabama
UAB is the largest state government employer in Alabama, with a workforce of about 18,000
Banking 

Regions Financial Corporation is the largest bank headquartered in or operating in Alabama
PNC Financial Services and Wells Fargo also have a major presence in Alabama
Wells Fargo has a regional headquarters, an operations center campus, and a $400million data center in Birmingham
Many smaller banks are also headquartered in the Birmingham area, including ServisFirst and New South Federal Savings Bank
Birmingham also serves as the headquarters for several large investment management companies, including Harbert Management Corporation
Electronics and communications 
Telecommunications provider AT&T, formerly BellSouth, has a major presence in Alabama with several large offices in Birmingham
Many technology companies are headquartered in Huntsville, such as ADTRAN, a network access company; Intergraph, a computer graphics company; and Avocent, an IT infrastructure company
Construction 
Brasfield & Gorrie, BE&K, Hoar Construction, and B.L
Law and government

State government 

The foundational document for Alabama's government is the Alabama Constitution, which was ratified in 1901
With over 850 amendments and almost 87,000 words, it is by some accounts the world's longest constitution and is roughly forty times the length of the United States Constitution
There has been a significant movement to rewrite and modernize Alabama's constitution
Critics argue that Alabama's constitution maintains highly centralized power with the state legislature, leaving practically no power in local hands
Most counties do not have home rule
Any policy changes proposed in different areas of the state must be approved by the entire Alabama legislature and, frequently, by state referendum
One criticism of the current constitution claims that its complexity and length intentionally codify segregation and racism
Alabama's government is divided into three coequal branches
The legislative branch is the Alabama Legislature, a bicameral assembly composed of the Alabama House of Representatives, with 105 members, and the Alabama Senate, with 35 members
The Legislature is responsible for writing, debating, passing, or defeating state legislation
The Republican Party currently holds a majority in both houses of the Legislature
The Legislature has the power to override a gubernatorial veto by a simple majority (most state Legislatures require a two-thirds majority to override a veto)
Until 1964, the state elected state senators on a geographic basis by county, with one per county
It had not redistricted congressional districts since passage of its constitution in 1901; as a result, urbanized areas were grossly underrepresented
It had not changed legislative districts to reflect the decennial censuses, either
At that time, Alabama and many other states had to change their legislative districting, as many across the country had systems that underrepresented urban areas and districts
This had caused decades of underinvestment in such areas
For instance, Birmingham and Jefferson County taxes had supplied one-third of the state budget, but Jefferson County received only 1/67th of state services in funding
Through the legislative delegations, the Alabama legislature kept control of county governments
The executive branch is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws
It is headed by the governor of Alabama
The current governor is Republican Kay Ivey
The members of the Legislature take office immediately after the November elections
Statewide officials, such as the governor, lieutenant governor, attorney general, and other constitutional officers, take office the following January
The judiciary is responsible for interpreting the Constitution of Alabama and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases
The state's highest court is the Supreme Court of Alabama
Alabama uses partisan elections to select judges
Since the 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly politicized
The current chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican Tom Parker
All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members of the Republican Party
Alabama has the death penalty with authorized methods of execution that include the electric chair and the gas chamber
Some critics believe the election of judges has contributed to an exceedingly high rate of executions
Alabama has the highest per capita death penalty rate in the country
In some years, it imposes more death sentences than does Texas, a state which has a population five times larger
However, executions per capita are significantly higher in Texas
Some of its cases have been highly controversial; the U.S
Supreme Court has overturned 24 convictions in death penalty cases
This judicial authority was removed in April 2017
On May 14, 2019, Alabama passed the Human Life Protection Act, banning abortion at any stage of pregnancy unless there is a "serious health risk", with no exceptions for rape and incest
The law subjects doctors who perform abortions with 10 to 99 years imprisonment
The law was originally supposed to take effect the following November, but on October 29, 2019, U.S
District Judge Myron Thompson blocked the law from taking effect due to it being in conflict with the 1973 U.S
On June 24, 2022, after the U.S
Jackson Women's Health Organization, Judge Thompson lifted the injunction, allowing the law to go into effect
Alabama is one of the very few states that does not allow the creation of state lotteries
Taxes 
Taxes are collected by the Alabama Department of Revenue
Alabama levies a 2%, 4%, or5% personal income tax, depending on the amount earned and filing status
The state's general sales tax rate is 4%
Sales tax rates for cities and counties are also added to purchases
For example, the total sales tax rate in Mobile County, Alabama is 10% and there is an additional restaurant tax of 1%, which means a diner in Mobile County, Alabama would pay an 11% tax on a meal
In 2020, sales and excise taxes in Alabama accounted for 38% of all state and local revenue
Only Alabama, Mississippi, and South Dakota tax groceries at the full state sales tax rate
The corporate income tax rate in Alabama is 6.5%
The overall federal, state, and local tax burden in Alabama ranks the state as the second least tax-burdened state in the country
Property taxes of .40% of assessed value per year, are the second-lowest in the U.S., after Hawaii
The current state constitution requires a voter referendum to raise property taxes
County and local governments 

Alabama has 67 counties
Each county has its own elected legislative branch, usually called the county commission
It also has limited executive authority in the county
Instead, most counties in the state must lobby the Local Legislation Committee of the state legislature to get simple local policies approved, ranging from waste disposal to land use zoning
Legislative delegations retain certain powers over each county
United States Supreme Court decisions in Baker v
Carr (1964) required that both houses have districts established on the basis of population, and redistricted after each census, to implement the principle of "one man, one vote"
Before that, each county was represented by one state senator, leading to under-representation in the state senate for more urbanized, populous counties
"The lack of home rule for counties in Alabama has resulted in the proliferation of local legislation permitting counties to do things not authorized by the state constitution
Alabama's constitution has been amended more than 700 times, and almost one-third of the amendments are local in nature, applying to only one county or city
The Alabama Alcoholic Beverage Control Board controls the sale and distribution of alcoholic beverages in the state
A total of 25 of the 67 counties are "dry counties" which ban the sale of alcohol, and there are many dry municipalities in counties which permit alcohol sales
Politics 
During Reconstruction following the American Civil War, Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the Third Military District under General John Pope
After 1890, a coalition of White Democratic politicians passed laws to segregate and disenfranchise African American residents, a process completed in provisions of the 1901 constitution
Provisions which disenfranchised blacks resulted in excluding many poor Whites
By 1941 more Whites than Blacks had been disenfranchised: 600,000 to 520,000
The total effects were greater on the black community, as almost all its citizens were disfranchised and relegated to separate and unequal treatment under the law
From 1901 through the 1960s, the state did not redraw election districts as population grew and shifted within the state during urbanization and industrialization of certain areas
Governor George Wallace, the state's only four-term governor, was a controversial figure who vowed to maintain segregation
Only after passage of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 did African Americans regain the ability to exercise suffrage, among other civil rights
In many jurisdictions, they continued to be excluded from representation by at-large electoral systems, which allowed the majority of the population to dominate elections
Some changes at the county level have occurred following court challenges to establish single-member districts that enable a more diverse representation among county boards
In 2007, the Alabama Legislature passed, and Republican governor Bob Riley signed a resolution expressing "profound regret" over slavery and its lingering impact
In a symbolic ceremony, the bill was signed in the Alabama State Capitol, which housed Congress of the Confederate States of America
In 2010, Republicans won control of both houses of the legislature for the first time in 136 years
, there are a total of 3,707,233 registered voters, with 3,318,679 active, and the others inactive in the state
The 2023 American Values Atlas by Public Religion Research Institute found that a majority of Alabama residents support same-sex marriage
For nearly a hundred years local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party primary, with generally only token Republican challengers running in the general election
Since the mid- to late 20th century, however, white conservatives started shifting to the Republican Party
In Alabama, majority-white districts are now expected to regularly elect Republican candidates to federal, state and local office
Members of the nine seats on the Supreme Court of Alabama and all ten seats on the state appellate courts are elected to office
Until 1994, no Republicans held any of the court seats
In that general election, the then-incumbent chief justice, Ernest C
Hornsby, refused to leave office after losing the election by approximately 3,000 votes to Republican Perry O
Hornsby sued Alabama and defiantly remained in office for nearly a year before finally giving up the seat after losing in court
The Democrats lost the last of the nineteen court seats in August 2011 with the resignation of the last Democrat on the bench
In the early 21st century, Republicans hold all seven of the statewide elected executive branch offices
Republicans hold six of the eight elected seats on the Alabama State Board of Education
In 2010, Republicans took large majorities of both chambers of the state legislature, giving them control of that body for the first time in 136 years
The last remaining statewide Democrat, who served on the Alabama Public Service Commission, was defeated in 2012
The three GOP lieutenant governors are Steve Windom (1999–2003), Kay Ivey (2011–2017), and Will Ainsworth (2019–present)
Local elections 
Many local offices (county commissioners, boards of education, tax assessors, mayors, etc.) in the state are still held by Democrats
Many metropolitan and suburban counties have voters who are majority Democrats, resulting in local elections being decided in the Democratic primary
Similarly most rural counties are majority-Republican and elections are effectively decided in the Republican Primary
However, since local governments in Alabama are weaker than in other parts of the country, Republicans have the upper hand in government
Alabama's 67 county sheriffs are elected in partisan, at-large races, and Republicans retain the vast majority of those posts
The current split is 18 Democrats, and 49 Republicans as of 2023
However, most of the Democratic sheriffs preside over urban and more populated counties
The majority of Republican sheriffs have been elected in the more rural counties with lower population
The state of Alabama has  and 11 African-American sheriffs
Federal elections 
The state's two U.S
senators are Katie Britt and Tommy Tuberville, both of whom are Republican
Together, 1,496 individual schools provide education for 744,637 elementary and secondary students
Public school funding is appropriated through the Alabama Legislature through the Education Trust Fund
In FY 2006–2007, Alabama appropriated $3,775,163,578 for primary and secondary education
That represented an increase of $444,736,387 over the previous fiscal year
In 2007, more than 82 percent of schools made adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward student proficiency under the National No Child Left Behind law, using measures determined by the state of Alabama
While Alabama's public education system has improved in recent decades, it lags behind in achievement compared to other states
Census data (2000), Alabama's high school graduation rate (75%) is the fourth lowest in the U.S
(after Kentucky, Louisiana and Mississippi)
The largest educational gains were among people with some college education but without degrees
According to National Assessment of Educational Progress (NEAP), Alabama ranks 39 in reading and 40 in math among fourth-grade students in the rankings from 2022
The rate of school corporal punishment in Alabama is surpassed by only Mississippi and Arkansas
Colleges and universities 

Alabama's programs of higher education include 14 four-year public universities, two-year community colleges, and 17 private, undergraduate and graduate universities
Public, post-secondary education in Alabama is overseen by the Alabama Commission on Higher Education and the Alabama Department of Postsecondary Education
Colleges and universities in Alabama offer degree programs from two-year associate degrees to a multitude of doctoral level programs
The largest single campus is the University of Alabama, located in Tuscaloosa, with 37,665 enrolled for fall 2016
The oldest institutions are the public University of North Alabama in Florence and the Catholic Church-affiliated Spring Hill College in Mobile, both founded in 1830
News & World Report, Alabama had four tier one universities (University of Alabama, Auburn University, University of Alabama at Birmingham and University of Alabama in Huntsville)
Media 

Major newspapers include Birmingham News, Mobile Press-Register, and Montgomery Advertiser
Sports

Professional sports 

Alabama has several professional and semi-professional sports teams, including three minor league baseball teams
The Talladega Superspeedway motorsports complex hosts a series of NASCAR events
It has a seating capacity of 143,000 and is the thirteenth largest stadium in the world and sixth largest stadium in America
Also, the Barber Motorsports Park has hosted IndyCar Series and Rolex Sports Car Series races
The ATP Birmingham was a World Championship Tennis tournament held from 1973 to 1980
College sports 
College football is extremely popular in Alabama, particularly the University of Alabama Crimson Tide and Auburn University Tigers, rivals in the Southeastern Conference
Alabama averages over 100,000 fans per game and Auburn averages over 80,000—both numbers among the top twenty in the nation
Bryant–Denny Stadium is the home of the Alabama football team, and has a seating capacity of 101,821, and is the fifth largest stadium in America
Jordan-Hare Stadium is the home field of the Auburn football team and seats up to 87,451
Protective Stadium is home of the UAB Blazers football program and the Birmingham Bowl
Rail 

For rail transport, Amtrak schedules the Crescent, a daily passenger train, running from New York to New Orleans with station stops at Anniston, Birmingham, and Tuscaloosa
I-22 enters the state from Mississippi and connects Birmingham with Memphis, Tennessee
In addition, there are currently five auxiliary interstate routes in the state: I-165 in Mobile, I-359 in Tuscaloosa, I-459 around Birmingham, I-565 in Decatur and Huntsville, and I-759 in Gadsden
A sixth route, I-685, will be formed when I-85 is rerouted along a new southern bypass of Montgomery
A proposed northern bypass of Birmingham will be designated as I-422
Since a direct connection from I-22 to I-422 will not be possible, I-222 has been proposed, as well
Highways also pass through the state, such as U.S
Route 11 (US-11), US-29, US-31, US-43, US-45, US-72, US-78, US-80, US-82, US-84, US-90, US-98, US-231, US-278, US-280, US-331, US-411, and US-431
Ports 
The Port of Mobile, Alabama's only saltwater port, is a large seaport on the Gulf of Mexico with inland waterway access to the Midwest by way of the Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway
The Port of Mobile was ranked 12th by tons of traffic in the United States during 2009
The newly expanded container terminal at the Port of Mobile was ranked as the 25th busiest for container traffic in the nation during 2011
The state's other ports are on rivers with access to the Gulf of Mexico
Alabama: The History of a Deep South State (1994)
Alabama in the Twentieth Century (2004)
History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography (4 vols, 1921)
Inside Alabama: A Personal History of My State (2004)
"Latinization in the Heart of Dixie: Hispanics in Late-twentieth-century Alabama" Alabama Review (2002, 55(4): 243–274)
The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States (1974)
A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century (1979)
A central character in Homer's Iliad, he was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Peleus, king of Phthia and famous Argonaut
Achilles was raised in Phthia along his childhood companion Patroclus and received his education by the centaur Chiron
In the Iliad, he is presented as the commander of the mythical tribe of the Myrmidons
Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan prince Hector outside the gates of Troy
Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the Iliad, other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by Paris, who shot him with an arrow
Later legends (beginning with Statius' unfinished epic Achilleid, written in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for one heel
According to that myth, when his mother Thetis dipped him in the river Styx as an infant, she held him by one of his heels leaving it untouched by the waters and thus his only vulnerable body part
Alluding to these legends, the term "Achilles' heel" has come to mean a point of weakness which can lead to downfall, especially in someone or something with an otherwise strong constitution
The Achilles tendon is named after him following the same legend
Etymology 

Linear B tablets attest to the personal name Achilleus in the forms a-ki-re-u and a-ki-re-we, the latter being the dative of the former
The grief or distress of the people is a theme raised numerous times in the Iliad (and frequently by Achilles himself)
Achilles' role as the hero of grief or distress forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of him as the hero of   ("glory", usually in war)
Furthermore, laós has been construed by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean "a corps of soldiers", a muster
With this derivation, the name obtains a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring distress to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war
The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership
Some researchers deem the name a loan word, possibly from a Pre-Greek language
Achilles' descent from the Nereid Thetis and a similarity of his name with those of river deities such as Acheron and Achelous have led to speculations about his being an old water divinity
Birth and early years 

Achilles was the son of Thetisa Nereid and daughter of the Old Man of the Seaand Peleus, the king of the Myrmidons
For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus
Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god Nereus, was also brought up by Hera, further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus
Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal
It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier
In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire in order to burn away the mortal parts of his body
She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage
None of the sources before Statius make any reference to this general invulnerability
To the contrary, in the Iliad, Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the Paeonian hero Asteropaios, son of Pelagon, challenged Achilles by the river Scamander
He was ambidextrous, and cast a spear from each hand; one grazed Achilles' elbow, "drawing a spurt of blood"
In the few fragmentary poems of the Epic Cycle which describe the hero's death (i.e
In the later vase paintings presenting the death of Achilles, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his torso
Peleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron, who lived on Mount Pelion and was known as the most righteous of the Centaurs, to be reared
In some accounts, Achilles' original name was "Ligyron" and he was later named Achilles by his tutor Chiron
According to Homer, Achilles grew up in Phthia with his childhood companion Patroclus
Homer further writes that Achilles taught Patroclus what he himself had been taught by Chiron, including the medical arts
Thetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity
Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan War
According to Photius, the sixth book of the New History by Ptolemy Hephaestion reported that Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus
When she had Achilles, Peleus noticed, tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot, and confided him to the centaur Chiron
Later Chiron exhumed the body of the Damysus, who was the fastest of all the giants, removed the ankle, and incorporated it into Achilles' burnt foot
Physical description 
In the account of Dares the Phrygian, Achilles was described having "
a large chest, a fine mouth, and powerfully formed arms and legs
His head was covered with long wavy chestnut-colored hair
Though mild in manner, he was very fierce in battle
His face showed the joy of a man richly endowed." Homer described Achilles, along with numerous other characters, as being blond
There, Achilles, properly disguised, lived among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name "Pyrrha" (the red-haired girl), Cercysera or Aissa ("swift")
With Lycomedes' daughter Deidamia, with whom he had begun a relationship, Achilles there fathered two sons, Neoptolemus (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's possible alias) and Oneiros
According to this story, Odysseus learned from the prophet Calchas that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid
Odysseus went to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewellery and placed a shield and spear among his goods
When Achilles instantly took up the spear, Odysseus saw through his disguise and convinced him to join the Greek campaign
In another version of the story, Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women
While the women fled in panic, Achilles prepared to defend the court, thus giving his identity away
In the Trojan War 

According to the Iliad, Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 Myrmidons
He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, Eudorus, Peisander, Phoenix and Alcimedon
Telephus 
When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus
In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal"
Guided by the oracle, he arrived at Argos, where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy
According to other reports in Euripides' lost play about Telephus, he went to Aulis pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound
Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge
Alternatively, Telephus held Orestes for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound
Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it
Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed
Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders, a "horse fighter" or "chariot fighter" according to Homer
Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him
Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace
In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege
Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents
Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the First Vatican Mythographer claimed, Troy would have been invincible; however, the motif is older and found already in Plautus' Bacchides
In the Iliad 

Homer's Iliad is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War
Achilles' wrath (μῆνις Ἀχιλλέως, mênis Achilléōs) is the central theme of the poem
The first two lines of the Iliad read:

The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the decade-long war, and does not narrate Achilles' death
It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after being dishonoured by Agamemnon, the commander of the Achaean forces
Agamemnon has taken a woman named Chryseis as his slave
Her father Chryses, a priest of Apollo, begs Agamemnon to return her to him
Agamemnon refuses, and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks
The prophet Calchas correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him
Achilles does so, and Calchas declares that Chryseis must be returned to her father
Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize Briseis, the daughter of Briseus, be brought to him to replace Chryseis
At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honour
As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, Nestor declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior
Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains, Ajax and Phoenix
They promise that, if Achilles returns to battle, Agamemnon will return the captive Briseis and other gifts
Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do
The Trojans, led by Hector, subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships
With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle, wearing Achilles' armour, though Achilles remains at his camp
Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy
After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus, the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death
His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles
She persuades Hephaestus to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector
The new armour includes the Shield of Achilles, described in great detail in the poem
Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector
Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander, who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed
The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by Hera and Hephaestus
Finally, Achilles finds his prey
After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable
Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses
Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him
Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that "my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me"
Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot
After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in honour of his companion
At the onset of his duel with Hector, Achilles is referred to as the brightest star in the sky, which comes on in the autumn, Orion's dog (Sirius); a sign of evil
With the assistance of the god Hermes (Argeiphontes), Hector's father Priam goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried
Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral, lasting 9 days with a burial on the 10th (in the tradition of Niobe's offspring)
The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come
When Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons and daughter of Ares, arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles
After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to grieve over her death later
Initially taken aback, he did not fight as intensely as usual
Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her
Following the death of Patroclus, Nestor's son Antilochus becomes Achilles' closest companion
When Memnon, son of the Dawn Goddess Eos and king of Ethiopia, slays Antilochus, Achilles once more obtains revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon
Consequently, Eos will not let the sun rise until Zeus persuades her
The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess
Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the Iliads description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it
The episode then formed the basis of the cyclic epic Aethiopis, which was composed after the Iliad, possibly in the 7th century BC
The Aethiopis is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors
Achilles and Patroclus 

The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times
In the Iliad, it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship
Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus had sexual relations
Although there is no direct evidence in the text of the Iliad that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors
Commentators from classical antiquity to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures
In 5th-century BC Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the Greek custom of paiderasteia, which is the relationship between an older male and a younger one, usually a teenager
In Patroclus and Achilles' case, Achilles would have been the younger as Patroclus is usually seen as his elder
However, ancient Greek had no words to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual, and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women
Many pairs of men throughout history have been compared to Achilles and Patroclus to imply a homosexual relationship
Death 

The death of Achilles, even if considered solely as it occurred in the oldest sources, is a complex one, with many different versions
In Book XXIII, the sad spirit of dead Patroclus visits Achilles just as he drifts off into slumber, requesting that his bones be placed with those of Achilles in his golden vase, a gift of his mother
In the Odyssey Book XI, Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades
One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead
But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and Odysseus tells him of Neoptolemus' actions
In the Odyssey Book XXIV we read dead King Agamemnon's ghostly account of his death: Achilles' funeral pyre bleached bones had been mixed with those of Patroclus and put into his mother's golden vase
Also, the bones of Antilocus, who had become closer to Achilles than any other following Patroclus' death, were separately enclosed
And, the customary funeral games of a hero were performed, and a massive tomb or mound was built on the Hellespont for approaching seagoers to celebrate
Achilles was represented in the Aethiopis as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube
Another version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, Polyxena
Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage
Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior
Fate of Achilles' armour 

Achilles' armour was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax (Ajax the greater)
Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned him the ire of Athena, who temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades
After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, he was so ashamed that he committed suicide
Odysseus eventually gave the armour to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles
When Odysseus encounters the shade of Ajax much later in the House of Hades (Odyssey 11.543–566), Ajax is still so angry about the outcome of the competition that he refuses to speak to Odysseus
The armour they fought for was made by Hephaestus and thus much stronger and more beautiful than any armour a mortal could craft
Thetis had the gear made for Achilles because his first set was worn by Patroclus when he went to battle and taken by Hector when he killed Patroclus
The Shield of Achilles was also made by the fire god
His legendary spear was given to him by his mentor Chiron before he participated in the Trojan War
It was called the Pelian Spear, which allegedly no other man could wield
A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was preserved for centuries in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis, Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf
Achilles, Ajax and a game of petteia 

Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions
At some point in the war, Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game (petteia)
They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle
The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena
Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e
The cult of Achilles is illustrated in the 500 BC Polyxena sarcophagus, which depicts the sacrifice of Polyxena near the tumulus of Achilles
The "present day" measures, he gives at this point, seem to account for an identification of Achillea or Leuce with today's Snake Island
Pliny's contemporary Pomponius Mela () tells that Achilles was buried on an island named Achillea, situated between the Borysthenes and the Ister, adding to the geographical confusion
Ruins of a square temple, measuring 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Kritzikly () in 1823 on Snake Island
A second exploration in 1840 showed that the construction of a lighthouse had destroyed all traces of this temple
Similarly, others relate the island's name to its white cliffs, snakes or birds dwelling there
Pausanias has been told that the island is "covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame
In this island there is also Achilles' temple and his statue"
Leuce had also a reputation as a place of healing
Pausanias reports that the Delphic Pythia sent a lord of Croton to be cured of a chest wound
Ammianus Marcellinus attributes the healing to waters (aquae) on the island
Strabo mentioned that the cape of the Racecourse of Achilles was sacred to Achilles and although it was treeless, was called Alsos (ἄλσος)
A number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters were dedicated to Achilles
Later attestations point to an Achílleion in Messenia (according to Stephanus Byzantinus) and an Achílleios (Ἀχίλλειος) in Laconia
The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, Neoptolemus
Alexander the Great, son of the Epirote princess Olympias, could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor
He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at Achilleion while passing Troy
In AD 216 the Roman Emperor Caracalla, while on his way to war against Parthia, emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles' tumulus
Reception during antiquity

In Greek tragedy 

The Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title Achilleis by modern scholars
The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of Hector and eventual death when an arrow shot by Paris and guided by Apollo punctures his heel
Extant fragments of the Achilleis and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play
The tragedian Sophocles also wrote The Lovers of Achilles, a play with Achilles as the main character
Towards the end of the 5th century BC, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; Euripides refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in Hecuba, Electra, and Iphigenia in Aulis
As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions
Plato
In Hippias Minor, a Socratic dialogue attributed to Plato, an arrogant man named Hippias argues with Socrates
The two get into a discussion about lying
Socrates uses various analogies, discussing athletics and the sciences to prove his point
The two also reference Homer extensively
Socrates and Hippias agree that Odysseus, who concocted a number of lies throughout the Odyssey and other stories in the Trojan War Cycle, was false intentionally
Achilles, like Odysseus, told numerous falsehoods
Hippias believes that Achilles was a generally honest man, while Socrates believes that Achilles lied for his own benefit
The two argue over whether it is better to lie on purpose or by accident
Socrates eventually abandons Homeric arguments and makes sports analogies to drive home the point: someone who does wrong on purpose is a better person than someone who does wrong unintentionally
In Roman and medieval literature 
The Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles
Virgil refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men, while Horace portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children
Other writers, such as Catullus, Propertius, and Ovid, represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career
In modern literature and arts

Literature
 Achilles appears in Dante's Inferno (composed 1308–1320)
He is seen in Hell's second circle, that of lust
Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in William Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida (1602)
Despicably, he has his Myrmidons murder the unarmed Hector, and then gets them to announce that Achilles himself has slain Hector, as if it had been in a fair fight (Act 5.9.5-14)
The French dramatist Thomas Corneille wrote a tragedy La Mort d'Achille (1673)
Achilles is the subject of the poem Achilleis (1799), a fragment by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
In 1899, the Polish playwright, painter and poet Stanisław Wyspiański published a national drama, based on Polish history, named Achilles
In 1921, Edward Shanks published The Island of Youth and Other Poems, concerned among others with Achilles
The 1983 novel Kassandra by Christa Wolf also treats the death of Achilles
H.D.'s 1961 long poem Helen in Egypt features Achilles prominently as a figure whose irrational hatred of Helen traumatizes her, the bulk of the poem's plot being about her recovery
Akhilles is killed by a poisoned Kentaur arrow shot by Kassandra in Marion Zimmer Bradley's novel The Firebrand (1987)
Achilles is one of various 'narrators' in Colleen McCullough's novel The Song of Troy (1998)
The Death of Achilles (Смерть Ахиллеса, 1998) is an historical detective novel by Russian writer Boris Akunin that alludes to various figures and motifs from the Iliad
The character Achilles in Ender's Shadow (1999), by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake's cunning mind and ruthless attitude
Achilles is one of the main characters in Dan Simmons's novels Ilium (2003) and Olympos (2005)
Achilles is a major supporting character in David Gemmell's Troy series of books (2005–2007)
Achilles is the main character in David Malouf's novel Ransom (2009)
The ghost of Achilles appears in Rick Riordan's The Last Olympian (2009)
He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects
Achilles is a main character in Terence Hawkins' 2009 novel The Rage of Achilles
Achilles is a major character in Madeline Miller's debut novel, The Song of Achilles (2011), which won the 2012 Orange Prize for Fiction
The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the Iliad
Achilles appears in the light novel series Fate/Apocrypha (2012–2014) as the Rider of Red
Achilles is a main character in Pat Barker's 2018 novel The Silence of the Girls, much of which is narrated by his slave Briseis
Achilles is the main character of Wrath Goddess Sing, a 2022 novel by Maya Deane, depicted as a transgender woman and daughter of Athena
The Rage of Achilles is a fresco by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1757, Villa Valmarana Ai Nani, Vicenza)
Eugène Delacroix painted a version of The Education of Achilles for the ceiling of the Paris Palais Bourbon (1833–1847), one of the seats of the French Parliament
created a statue group Achilles and Penthesilea (1895; Vienna)
Achilleus (1908) is a lithography by Max Slevogt
Music 
Achilles has been frequently the subject of operas, ballets and related genres
Operas titled Deidamia were composed by Francesco Cavalli (1644) and George Frideric Handel (1739)
Achille et Polyxène (Paris 1687) is an opera begun by Jean-Baptiste Lully and finished by Pascal Collasse
Achille et Déidamie (Paris 1735) is an opera composed by André Campra
Achilles (London 1733) is a ballad opera, written by John Gay, parodied by Thomas Arne as Achilles in petticoats in 1773
Achille in Sciro is a libretto by Metastasio, composed by Domenico Sarro for the inauguration of the Teatro di San Carlo (Naples, 4 November 1737)
An even earlier composition is from Antonio Caldara (Vienna 1736)
Petersburg 1772), Giuseppe Gazzaniga (Palermo 1781) and many others
It has also been set to music as Il Trionfo della gloria
Achille (Vienna 1801) is an opera by Ferdinando Paër on a libretto by Giovanni de Gamerra
Achille à Scyros (Paris 1804) is a ballet by Pierre Gardel, composed by Luigi Cherubini
Achilles, oder Das zerstörte Troja ("Achilles, or Troy Destroyed", Bonn 1885) is an oratorio by the German composer Max Bruch
Achilles auf Skyros (Stuttgart 1926) is a ballet by the Austrian-British composer and musicologist Egon Wellesz
Achilles' Wrath is a concert piece by Sean O'Loughlin
Temporary Like Achilles is a track on the 1966 double-album Blonde on Blonde by Bob Dylan
 Achilles Last Stand is a track on the 1976 Led Zeppelin album Presence
Achilles, Agony and Ecstasy in Eight Parts is the first song on the 1992 Manowar album The Triumph of Steel
Achilles Come Down is a song on the 2017 Gang of Youths album Go Farther in Lightness
The building is named the Achilleion, after Achilles
Its paintings and statuary depict scenes from the Trojan War, with particular focus on Achilles
Namesakes 
 The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine Royal Navy warships since 1744 – both as  and with the French spelling
A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the Battle of Trafalgar
Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809
An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the First World War
was a  which served with the Royal New Zealand Navy in World War II
It became famous for its part in the Battle of the River Plate, alongside  and
In addition to earning the battle honour 'River Plate', HMNZS Achilles also served at Guadalcanal 1942–1943 and Okinawa in 1945
After returning to the Royal Navy, the ship was sold to the Indian Navy in 1948, but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand
A species of lizard, Anolis achilles, which has widened heel plates, is named for Achilles
Gallery

References

Further reading 
 Ileana Chirassi Colombo (1977), "Heroes Achilleus – Theos Apollon." In Il Mito Greco, edd
Bruno Gentili and Giuseppe Paione
Rome: Edizione dell'Ateneo e Bizzarri
Anthony Edwards (1985a), "Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis"
Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies
Anthony Edwards (1985b), "Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic"
Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie
Graves, Robert, The Greek Myths, Harmondsworth, London, England, Penguin Books, 1960
Graves, Robert, The Greek Myths: The Complete and Definitive Edition
Hélène Monsacré (1984), Les larmes d'Achille
Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère, Paris: Albin Michel
Gregory Nagy (1984), The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology, Illinois Classical Studies
Gregory Nagy (1999), The Best of The Acheans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry
Johns Hopkins University Press (revised edition, online )
Sinos (1991), The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic, PhD thesis, Johns Hopkins University
Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International
Burgess (2009), The Death and Afterlife of Achilles
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
(2016), Themes of the Trojan Cycle: Contribution to the study of the greek mythological tradition (Coimbra)
Lincoln was born into poverty in a log cabin in Kentucky and was raised on the frontier, primarily in Indiana
He was self-educated and became a lawyer, Whig Party leader, Illinois state legislator, and U.S
In 1849, he returned to his successful law practice in Springfield, Illinois
In 1854, he was angered by the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which opened the territories to slavery, causing him to re-enter politics
He soon became a leader of the new Republican Party
He reached a national audience in the 1858 Senate campaign debates against Stephen A
Lincoln ran for president in 1860, sweeping the North to gain victory
Pro-slavery elements in the South viewed his election as a threat to slavery, and Southern states began seceding from the nation
During this time, the newly formed Confederate States of America began seizing federal military bases in the South
A little over one month after Lincoln assumed the presidency, Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter, a U.S
Following the bombardment, Lincoln mobilized forces to suppress the rebellion and restore the union
Lincoln, a moderate Republican, had to navigate a contentious array of factions with friends and opponents from both the Democratic and Republican parties
His allies, the War Democrats and the Radical Republicans, demanded harsh treatment of the Southern Confederates
He managed the factions by exploiting their mutual enmity, carefully distributing political patronage, and by appealing to the American people
Anti-war Democrats (called "Copperheads") despised Lincoln, and some irreconcilable pro-Confederate elements went so far as to plot his assassination
His Gettysburg Address came to be seen as one of the greatest and most influential statements of American national purpose
Lincoln closely supervised the strategy and tactics in the war effort, including the selection of generals, and implemented a naval blockade of the South's trade
He suspended habeas corpus in Maryland and elsewhere, and averted British intervention by defusing the Trent Affair
In 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared the slaves in the states "in rebellion" to be free
Constitution, which abolished slavery, except as punishment for a crime
Lincoln managed his own successful re-election campaign
He sought to heal the war-torn nation through reconciliation
Lincoln is remembered as a martyr and a national hero for his wartime leadership and for his efforts to preserve the Union and abolish slavery
Lincoln is often ranked in both popular and scholarly polls as the greatest president in American history
He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk, to its namesake, Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1638
The family then migrated west, passing through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia
The captain was killed in an Indian raid in 1786
His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, Abraham's father, witnessed the attack
Thomas then worked at odd jobs in Kentucky and Tennessee before the family settled in Hardin County, Kentucky, in the early 1800s
Lincoln's mother Nancy Lincoln is widely assumed to be the daughter of Lucy Hanks
Thomas and Nancy married on June 12, 1806, in Washington County, and moved to Elizabethtown, Kentucky
They had three children: Sarah, Abraham, and Thomas, who died as an infant
Thomas Lincoln bought or leased farms in Kentucky before losing all but  of his land in court disputes over property titles
In 1816, the family moved to Indiana where the land surveys and titles were more reliable
Indiana was a "free" (non-slaveholding) territory, and they settled in an "unbroken forest" in Hurricane Township, Perry County, Indiana
In 1860, Lincoln noted that the family's move to Indiana was "partly on account of slavery", but mainly due to land title difficulties
In Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter
At various times, he owned farms, livestock, and town lots, paid taxes, sat on juries, appraised estates, and served on county patrols
Thomas and Nancy were members of a Separate Baptists church, which forbade alcohol, dancing, and slavery
Overcoming financial challenges, Thomas in 1827 obtained clear title to  in Indiana, an area which became the Little Pigeon Creek Community
Ten years later, on January 20, 1828, Sarah died while giving birth to a stillborn son, devastating Lincoln
On December 2, 1819, Thomas married Sarah Bush Johnston, a widow from Elizabethtown, Kentucky, with three children of her own
Abraham became close to his stepmother and called her "Mother"
Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with farm life
His family even said he was lazy, for all his "reading, scribbling, writing, ciphering, writing Poetry, etc."
His stepmother acknowledged he did not enjoy "physical labor", but loved to read
Education and move to Illinois
Lincoln was largely self-educated
His formal schooling was from itinerant teachers
He persisted as an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning
Despite being self-educated, Lincoln was the recipient of honorary degrees later in life, including an honorary Doctor of Laws from Columbia University in June 1861
As a teen, Lincoln took responsibility for chores and customarily gave his father all earnings from work outside the home until he was 21
Lincoln was tall, strong, and athletic, and became adept at using an ax
He was an active wrestler during his youth and trained in the rough catch-as-catch-can style (also known as catch wrestling)
He became county wrestling champion at the age of 21
He gained a reputation for strength and audacity after winning a wrestling match with the renowned leader of ruffians known as "the Clary's Grove Boys"
In March 1830, fearing another milk sickness outbreak, several members of the extended Lincoln family, including Abraham, moved west to Illinois, a free state, and settled in Macon County
Abraham then became increasingly distant from Thomas, in part due to his father's lack of education
In 1831, as Thomas and other family members prepared to move to a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois, Abraham struck out on his own
He made his home in New Salem, Illinois, for six years
Lincoln and some friends took goods, including live hogs, by flatboat to New Orleans, Louisiana, where he first witnessed slavery
Marriage and children

Speculation persists that Lincoln's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge, whom he met when he moved to New Salem
Witness testimony, given decades afterward, showed a lack of any specific recollection of a romance between the two
In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky
Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Owens if she returned to New Salem
Owens arrived that November and he courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts
On August 16, 1837, he wrote Owens a letter saying he would not blame her if she ended the relationship, and she never replied
In 1839, Lincoln met Mary Todd in Springfield, Illinois, and the following year they became engaged
She was the daughter of Robert Smith Todd, a wealthy lawyer and businessman in Lexington, Kentucky
A wedding set for January 1, 1841, was canceled at Lincoln's request, but they reconciled and married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's sister
While anxiously preparing for the nuptials, he was asked where he was going and replied, "To hell, I suppose." In 1844, the couple bought a house in Springfield near his law office
Mary kept house with the help of a hired servant and a relative
Lincoln was an affectionate husband and father of four sons, though his work regularly kept him away from home
The oldest, Robert Todd Lincoln, was born in 1843 and was the only child to live to maturity
Edward Baker Lincoln (Eddie), born in 1846, died February 1, 1850, probably of tuberculosis
Lincoln's third son, "Willie" Lincoln was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever at the White House on February 20, 1862
The youngest, Thomas "Tad" Lincoln, was born on April 4, 1853, and survived his father but died of heart failure at age 18 on July 16, 1871
Lincoln "was remarkably fond of children" and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own
In fact, Lincoln's law partner William H
Herndon would grow irritated when Lincoln brought his children to the law office
Their father, it seemed, was often too absorbed in his work to notice his children's behavior
Herndon recounted, "I have felt many and many a time that I wanted to wring their little necks, and yet out of respect for Lincoln I kept my mouth shut
Lincoln did not note what his children were doing or had done."

The deaths of their sons, Eddie and Willie, had profound effects on both parents
Lincoln suffered from "melancholy", a condition now thought to be clinical depression
Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert committed her for a time to an asylum in 1875
Early career and militia service

During 1831 and 1832, Lincoln worked at a general store in New Salem, Illinois
In 1832, he declared his candidacy for the Illinois House of Representatives, but interrupted his campaign to serve as a captain in the Illinois Militia during the Black Hawk War
As licensed bartenders, Lincoln and Berry were able to sell spirits, including liquor, for 12 cents a pint
They offered a wide range of alcoholic beverages as well as food, including takeout dinners
But Berry became an alcoholic, was often too drunk to work, and Lincoln ended up running the store by himself
Although the economy was booming, the business struggled and went into debt, causing Lincoln to sell his share
In the campaign, Lincoln advocated for navigational improvements on the Sangamon River
He could draw crowds as a raconteur, but lacked the requisite formal education, powerful friends, and money, and lost the election
Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct
Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, but continued his voracious reading and decided to become a lawyer
Then followed his four terms in the Illinois House of Representatives for Sangamon County
He championed construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, and later was a Canal Commissioner
He voted to expand suffrage beyond white landowners to all white males, but adopted a "free soil" stance opposing both slavery and abolition
He was admitted to the Illinois bar on September 9, 1836, and moved to Springfield and began to practice law under John T
Lincoln emerged as a formidable trial combatant during cross-examinations and closing arguments
He partnered several years with Stephen T
Logan, and in 1844 began his practice with William Herndon, "a studious young man"
Lincoln warned that no trans-Atlantic military giant could ever crush us as a nation
If destruction be our lot, we must ourselves be its author and finisher", said Lincoln
Prior to that, on April 28, 1836, an innocent black man, Francis McIntosh, was burned alive in St
Zann Gill describes how these two murders set off a chain reaction that ultimately prompted Abraham Lincoln to run for President
House of Representatives (1847–1849)

True to his record, Lincoln professed to friends in 1861 to be "an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay"
Their party favored economic modernization in banking, tariffs to fund internal improvements including railroads, and urbanization
In 1843, Lincoln sought the Whig nomination for Illinois' 7th district seat in the U.S
House of Representatives; he was defeated by John J
Hardin though he prevailed with the party in limiting Hardin to one term
Lincoln not only pulled off his strategy of gaining the nomination in 1846 but also won the election
He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but as dutiful as any participated in almost all votes and made speeches that toed the party line
He was assigned to the Committee on Post Office and Post Roads and the Committee on Expenditures in the War Department
Giddings on a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter
He dropped the bill when it eluded Whig support
Political views 
On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke against the Mexican–American War, which he imputed to President James K
Polk's desire for "military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood"
He supported the Wilmot Proviso, a failed proposal to ban slavery in any U.S
Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his Spot Resolutions
The resolution was ignored in both Congress and the national papers, and it cost Lincoln political support in his district
One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln"
Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on presidential war-making powers
Lincoln had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House
Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, he supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election
Taylor won and Lincoln hoped in vain to be appointed Commissioner of the General Land Office
The administration offered to appoint him secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory as consolation
This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have disrupted his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice
Prairie lawyer

In his Springfield practice, Lincoln handled "every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer"
Twice a year he appeared for 10 consecutive weeks in county seats in the Midstate county courts; this continued for 16 years
Lincoln handled transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly river barge conflicts under the many new railroad bridges
As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him
He later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in Hurd v
Rock Island Bridge Company, a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge
In 1849, he received a patent for a flotation device for the movement of boats in shallow water
The idea was never commercialized, but it made Lincoln the only president to hold a patent
Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases; he was sole counsel in 51 cases, of which 31 were decided in his favor
From 1853 to 1860, one of his largest clients was the Illinois Central Railroad
His legal reputation gave rise to the nickname "Honest Abe"
Lincoln argued in an 1858 criminal trial, defending William "Duff" Armstrong, who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker
The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by judicial notice to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness
After an opposing witness testified to seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a Farmers' Almanac showing the Moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility
Harrison was charged with the murder of Greek Crafton who, as he lay dying of his wounds, confessed to Cartwright that he had provoked Harrison
Lincoln angrily protested the judge's initial decision to exclude Cartwright's testimony about the confession as inadmissible hearsay
Lincoln argued that the testimony involved a dying declaration and was not subject to the hearsay rule
Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling and admitted the testimony into evidence, resulting in Harrison's acquittal
In his 1852 eulogy for Clay, Lincoln highlighted the latter's support for gradual emancipation and opposition to "both extremes" on the slavery issue
As the slavery debate in the Nebraska and Kansas territories became particularly acrimonious, Illinois Senator Stephen A
Douglas proposed popular sovereignty as a compromise; the measure would allow the electorate of each territory to decide the status of slavery
The legislation alarmed many Northerners, who sought to prevent the spread of slavery that could result, but Douglas's Kansas–Nebraska Act narrowly passed Congress in May 1854
Lincoln did not comment on the act until months later in his "Peoria Speech" of October 1854
Lincoln then declared his opposition to slavery, which he repeated en route to the presidency
He said the Kansas Act had a "declared indifference, but as I must think, a covert real zeal for the spread of slavery
I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself
I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world...." Lincoln's attacks on the Kansas–Nebraska Act marked his return to political life
Nationally, the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue
Reflecting on the demise of his party, Lincoln wrote in 1855, "I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist
Lincoln held out hope for rejuvenating the Whigs, though he lamented his party's growing closeness with the nativist Know Nothing movement
In 1854, Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature but declined to take his seat
The year's elections showed the strong opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and in the aftermath, Lincoln sought election to the United States Senate
At that time, senators were elected by the state legislature
After leading in the first six rounds of voting, he was unable to obtain a majority
Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull
Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat, and had received few votes in the earlier ballots; his supporters, also antislavery Democrats, had vowed not to support any Whig
Lincoln's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate, Joel Aldrich Matteson
1856 campaign 
Violent political confrontations in Kansas continued, and opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act remained strong throughout the North
As the 1856 elections approached, Lincoln joined the Republicans and attended the Bloomington Convention, which formally established the Illinois Republican Party
The convention platform endorsed Congress's right to regulate slavery in the territories and backed the admission of Kansas as a free state
Lincoln gave the final speech of the convention supporting the party platform and called for the preservation of the Union
At the June 1856 Republican National Convention, though Lincoln received support to run as vice president, John C
Frémont and William Dayton comprised the ticket, which Lincoln supported throughout Illinois
The Democrats nominated former Secretary of State James Buchanan and the Know-Nothings nominated former Whig President Millard Fillmore
Buchanan prevailed, while Republican William Henry Bissell won election as Governor of Illinois, and Lincoln became a leading Republican in Illinois
Sandford 
Dred Scott was a slave whose master took him from a slave state to a territory that was free as a result of the Missouri Compromise
After Scott was returned to the slave state, he petitioned a federal court for his freedom
His petition was denied in Dred Scott v
In his opinion, Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B
Taney wrote that black people were not citizens and derived no rights from the Constitution, and that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional for infringing upon slave owners' "property" rights
While many Democrats hoped that Dred Scott would end the dispute over slavery in the territories, the decision sparked further outrage in the North
Lincoln denounced it as the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the Slave Power
Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech

In 1858, Douglas was up for re-election in the U.S
Senate, and Lincoln hoped to defeat him
Many in the party felt that a former Whig should be nominated in 1858, and Lincoln's 1856 campaigning and support of Trumbull had earned him a favor
Some eastern Republicans supported Douglas for his opposition to the Lecompton Constitution and admission of Kansas as a slave state
Many Illinois Republicans resented this eastern interference
For the first time, Illinois Republicans held a convention to agree upon a Senate candidate, and Lincoln won the nomination with little opposition
Lincoln accepted the nomination with great enthusiasm and zeal
After his nomination he delivered his House Divided Speech, with the biblical reference Mark 3:25, "A house divided against itself cannot stand
I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free
I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided
It will become all one thing, or all the other." The speech created a stark image of the danger of disunion
The stage was then set for the election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas
When informed of Lincoln's nomination, Douglas stated, "[Lincoln] is the strong man of the party
and if I beat him, my victory will be hardly won."

The Senate campaign featured seven debates between Lincoln and Douglas
These were the most famous political debates in American history; they had an atmosphere akin to a prizefight and drew crowds in the thousands
The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically
Lincoln warned that Douglas' "Slave Power" was threatening the values of republicanism, and accused Douglas of distorting the Founding Fathers' premise that all men are created equal
Douglas emphasized his Freeport Doctrine, in which he said local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery within their territory, and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists
Lincoln's argument assumed a moral tone, as he claimed Douglas represented a conspiracy to promote slavery
Douglas's argument was more legal in nature, claiming that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S
Supreme Court as exercised in the Dred Scott decision
Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas
However, Lincoln's articulation of the issues had given him a national political presence
In the aftermath of the 1858 election, newspapers frequently mentioned Lincoln as a potential Republican presidential candidate, rivaled by William H
Chase, Edward Bates, and Simon Cameron
While Lincoln was popular in the Midwest, he lacked support in the Northeast and was unsure whether to seek the office
In January 1860, Lincoln told a group of political allies that he would accept the presidential nomination if offered and, in the following months, several local papers endorsed his candidacy
Over the coming months, Lincoln was tireless, making nearly fifty speeches along the campaign trail
By the quality and simplicity of his rhetoric, he quickly became the champion of the Republican party
However, despite his overwhelming support in the Midwestern United States, he was less appreciated in the east
He insisted that morality required opposition to slavery and rejected any "groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong"
Many in the audience thought he appeared awkward and even ugly
But Lincoln demonstrated intellectual leadership, which brought him into contention
Journalist Noah Brooks reported, "No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience"
Historian David Herbert Donald described the speech as "a superb political move for an unannounced presidential aspirant
1860 presidential election

On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur
Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by David Davis, Norman Judd, Leonard Swett, and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement
Exploiting his embellished frontier legend (clearing land and splitting fence rails), Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate"
At times he was presented as the plain-talking "Rail Splitter" and at other times he was "Honest Abe", unpolished but trustworthy
On May 18, at the Republican National Convention in Chicago, Lincoln won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as Seward and Chase
A former Democrat, Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, was nominated for vice president to balance the ticket
Lincoln's success depended on his campaign team, his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for internal improvements and the tariff
Pennsylvania put him over the top, led by the state's iron interests who were reassured by his tariff support
Lincoln's managers had focused on this delegation while honoring Lincoln's dictate to "Make no contracts that will bind me"
As the Slave Power tightened its grip on the national government, most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party
Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln had doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession
Breckinridge as their candidate
A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the Constitutional Union Party and nominated John Bell of Tennessee
Lincoln and Douglas competed for votes in the North, while Bell and Breckinridge primarily found support in the South
People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln and rallied supporters for Lincoln
As Douglas and the other candidates campaigned, Lincoln gave no speeches, relying on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party
The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North and produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials
Republican speakers focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty
The goal was to demonstrate the power of "free labor", which allowed a common farm boy to work his way to the top by his own efforts
The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a Chicago Tribune writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life and sold 100,000–200,000 copies
Though he did not give public appearances, many sought to visit him and write him
In the runup to the election, he took an office in the Illinois state capitol to deal with the influx of attention
He also hired John George Nicolay as his personal secretary, who would remain in that role during the presidency
On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president
He was the first Republican president and his victory was entirely due to his support in the North and West
No ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states, an omen of the impending Civil War
Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, or 39.8% of the total in a four-way race, carrying the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon
His victory in the Electoral College was decisive: Lincoln had 180 votes to 123 for his opponents
On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed
Six of these states declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the Confederate States of America, and adopted a constitution
The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) initially rejected the secessionist appeal
President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal
The Confederacy selected Jefferson Davis as its provisional president on February 9, 1861
Attempts at compromise followed but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected the proposed Crittenden Compromise as contrary to the Party's platform of free-soil in the territories
Lincoln said, "I will suffer death before I consent
to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right"
Lincoln supported the Corwin Amendment to the Constitution, which passed Congress and was awaiting ratification by the states when Lincoln took office
That doomed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed
A few weeks before the war, Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution
On February 11, 1861, Lincoln gave a particularly emotional farewell address upon leaving Springfield; he would never again return to Springfield alive
Lincoln traveled east in a special train
Due to secessionist plots, a then-unprecedented attention to security was given to him and his train
En route to his inauguration, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North
The president-elect evaded suspected assassins in Baltimore
On February 23, 1861, he arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military guard
This is the only substantial dispute." The president ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: "We are not enemies, but friends
By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms
Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated
On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter and began the fight
Donald concludes that, "His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft
Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood
But he also vowed not to surrender the forts
This call forced states to choose sides
Virginia seceded and was rewarded with the designation of Richmond as the Confederate capital, despite its exposure to Union lines
North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas followed over the following two months
Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky remained neutral
The Fort Sumter attack rallied Americans north of the Mason-Dixon line to defend the nation
As States sent Union regiments south, on April 19, Baltimore mobs in control of the rail links attacked Union troops who were changing trains
Local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital and the Army responded by arresting local Maryland officials
Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus in an effort to protect the troops trying to reach Washington
John Merryman, one Maryland official hindering the U.S
troop movements, petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B
Taney to issue a writ of habeas corpus
But Lincoln persisted with the policy of suspension in select areas
Union military strategy
Lincoln took executive control of the war and shaped the Union military strategy
He responded to the unprecedented political and military crisis as commander-in-chief by exercising unprecedented authority
Lincoln gained the support of Congress and the northern public for these actions
Lincoln also had to reinforce Union sympathies in the border slave states and keep the war from becoming an international conflict
Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on slavery
The Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery
On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that authorized judicial proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederates
The law had little practical effect, but it signaled political support for abolishing slavery
Frémont, the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, without consulting Washington, issued a martial edict freeing slaves of the rebels
Lincoln canceled the illegal proclamation as politically motivated and lacking military necessity
As a result, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased by over 40,000
Internationally, Lincoln wanted to forestall foreign military aid to the Confederacy
He relied on his combative Secretary of State William Seward while working closely with Senate Foreign Relations Committee chairman Charles Sumner
In the 1861 Trent Affair, which threatened war with Great Britain, the U.S
Navy illegally intercepted a British mail ship, the Trent, on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S
Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats
Randall dissected Lincoln's successful techniques:

Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraph reports coming into the War Department
He tracked all phases of the effort, consulting with governors, and selecting generals based on their success, their state, and their party
In January 1862, after complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced War Secretary Simon Cameron with Edwin Stanton
Stanton centralized the War Department's activities, auditing and canceling contracts, saving the federal government $17,000,000
Stanton was a staunch Unionist, pro-business, conservative Democrat who gravitated toward the Radical Republican faction
He worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official
"Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together", say Thomas and Hyman
Lincoln's war strategy embraced two priorities: ensuring that Washington was well-defended and conducting an aggressive war effort for a prompt, decisive victory
Twice a week, Lincoln met with his cabinet in the afternoon
Occasionally Mary prevailed on him to take a carriage ride, concerned that he was working too hard
Lincoln began to appreciate the critical need to control strategic points, such as the Mississippi River
Lincoln saw the importance of Vicksburg and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than merely capturing territory
In directing the Union's war strategy, Lincoln valued the advice of Gen
Winfield Scott, even after his retirement as Commanding General of the United States Army
General McClellan
After the Union rout at Bull Run and Winfield Scott's retirement, Lincoln appointed Major General George B
McClellan then took months to plan his Virginia Peninsula Campaign
McClellan's slow progress frustrated Lincoln, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington
McClellan, in turn, blamed the failure of the campaign on Lincoln's reservation of troops for the capital
In 1862, Lincoln removed McClellan for the general's continued inaction
He elevated Henry Halleck in July and appointed John Pope as head of the new Army of Virginia
Pope satisfied Lincoln's desire to advance on Richmond from the north, thus protecting Washington from counterattack
But Pope was then soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back to defend Washington
Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln restored him to command of all forces around Washington
Two days after McClellan's return to command, General Robert E
Lee's forces crossed the Potomac River into Maryland, leading to the Battle of Antietam
That battle, a Union victory, was among the bloodiest in American history; it facilitated Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation in January
Lincoln replaced Buell with William Rosecrans; and after the 1862 midterm elections he replaced McClellan with Ambrose Burnside
The appointments were both politically neutral and adroit on Lincoln's part
Burnside, against presidential advice, launched an offensive across the Rappahannock River and was defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg in December
Desertions during 1863 came in the thousands and only increased after Fredericksburg, so Lincoln replaced Burnside with Joseph Hooker
Hooker was routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May, then resigned and was replaced by George Meade
Meade followed Lee north into Pennsylvania and beat him in the Gettysburg Campaign, but then failed to follow up despite Lincoln's demands
At the same time, Grant captured Vicksburg and gained control of the Mississippi River, splitting the far western rebel states
Emancipation Proclamation

The Federal government's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution, which before 1865 was understood to reserve the issue to the individual states
He sought to persuade the states to agree to compensation for emancipating their slaves
Lincoln rejected Major General John C
In June 1862, Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory, which Lincoln signed
He felt such action could be taken only within the war powers of the commander-in-chief, which he planned to exercise
On July 22, 1862, Lincoln reviewed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet
At the same time, during those 100 days, Lincoln made efforts to end the war with slavery intact
The Emancipation Proclamation having stated that freedmen would be "received into the armed service of the United States," enlisting these freedmen became official policy
By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers
By the end of 1863, at Lincoln's direction, General Lorenzo Thomas "had enrolled twenty regiments of African Americans" from the Mississippi Valley
Gettysburg Address (1863)

Lincoln spoke at the dedication of the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863
In 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted that the nation was born not in 1789, but in 1776, "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal"
He defined the war as dedicated to the principles of liberty and equality for all
Defying his prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here", the Address became the most quoted speech in American history
Promoting General Grant

General Ulysses Grant's victories at the Battle of Shiloh and in the Vicksburg campaign impressed Lincoln
Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln had said, "I can't spare this man
He fights." With Grant in command, Lincoln felt the Union Army could advance in multiple theaters, while also including black troops
Meade's failure to capture Lee's army after Gettysburg and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac persuaded Lincoln to promote Grant to supreme commander
Grant then assumed command of Meade's army
Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a presidential candidacy in 1864
Authorization for such a promotion "with the advice and consent of the Senate" was provided by a new bill which Lincoln signed the same day he submitted Grant's name to the Senate
His nomination was confirmed by the Senate on March 2, 1864
Grant in 1864 waged the bloody Overland Campaign, which exacted heavy losses on both sides
When Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were, the persistent general replied, "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." Grant's army moved steadily south
Lincoln traveled to Grant's headquarters at City Point, Virginia, to confer with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman
Lincoln reacted to Union losses by mobilizing support throughout the North
Lincoln authorized Grant to target infrastructure—plantations, railroads, and bridges—hoping to weaken the South's morale and fighting ability
He emphasized defeat of the Confederate armies over destruction (which was considerable) for its own sake
Lincoln's engagement became distinctly personal on one occasion in 1864 when Confederate general Jubal Early raided Washington, D.C
Legend has it that while Lincoln watched from an exposed position, Union Captain (and future Supreme Court Justice) Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr
shouted at him, "Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!" But this story is commonly regarded as apocryphal
As Grant continued to weaken Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began
Confederate Vice President Stephens led a group meeting with Lincoln, Seward, and others at Hampton Roads
Lincoln refused to negotiate with the Confederacy as a coequal; his objective to end the fighting was not realized
On April 1, 1865, Grant nearly encircled Petersburg in a siege
The Confederate government evacuated Richmond and Lincoln visited the conquered capital
On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, officially ending the war
Reelection

Lincoln ran for reelection in 1864, while uniting the main Republican factions, along with War Democrats Edwin M
Lincoln used conversation and his patronage powers—greatly expanded from peacetime—to build support and fend off the Radicals' efforts to replace him
At its convention, the Republicans selected Johnson as his running mate
To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new Union Party
Grant's bloody stalemates damaged Lincoln's re-election prospects, and many Republicans feared defeat
Meanwhile, Lincoln emboldened Grant with more troops and Republican party support
Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September and David Farragut's capture of Mobile ended defeatism
The Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln
The National Union Party was united by Lincoln's support for emancipation
State Republican parties stressed the perfidy of the Copperheads
On November 8, Lincoln carried all but three states, including 78 percent of Union soldiers
On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address
In it, he deemed the war casualties to be God's will
Historian Mark Noll places the speech "among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world;" it is inscribed in the Lincoln Memorial
Lincoln said:

Reconstruction

Reconstruction preceded the war's end, as Lincoln and his associates considered the reintegration of the nation, and the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves
His main goal was to keep the union together, so he proceeded by focusing not on whom to blame, but on how to rebuild the nation as one
Lincoln led the moderates in Reconstruction policy and was opposed by the Radicals, under Rep
Benjamin Wade, who otherwise remained Lincoln's allies
Determined to reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held
As Southern states fell, they needed leaders while their administrations were restored
In Tennessee and Arkansas, Lincoln respectively appointed Johnson and Frederick Steele as military governors
In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered General Nathaniel P
Banks to promote a plan that would reestablish statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed, and only if the reconstructed states abolished slavery
Democratic opponents accused Lincoln of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations
The Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, the 1864 Wade–Davis Bill, which Lincoln vetoed
The Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat elected representatives from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee
Lincoln's appointments were designed to harness both moderates and Radicals
To fill Chief Justice Taney's seat on the Supreme Court, he named the Radicals' choice, Salmon P
Chase, who Lincoln believed would uphold his emancipation and paper money policies
After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the nation with a constitutional amendment
He declared that such an amendment would "clinch the whole matter" and by December 1863 an amendment was brought to Congress
The Senate passed it on April 8, 1864, but the first vote in the House of Representatives fell short of the required two-thirds majority
Passage became part of Lincoln's reelection platform, and after his successful reelection, the second attempt in the House passed on January 31, 1865
With ratification, it became the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on December 6, 1865
Lincoln believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen
He signed Senator Charles Sumner's Freedmen's Bureau bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate needs of former slaves
The law opened land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen
Lincoln announced a Reconstruction plan that involved short-term military control, pending readmission under the control of southern Unionists
Historians agree that it is impossible to predict how Reconstruction would have proceeded had Lincoln lived
Later he served as a captain in the state militia during the Black Hawk War but saw no combat
During his presidency, his policy toward Indians was based on politics
He used appointments to the Indian Bureau as a reward to supporters from Minnesota and Wisconsin
While in office his administration faced difficulties guarding Western settlers, railroads, and telegraphs, from Indian attacks
On August 17, 1862, the Sioux or Dakota uprising broke out in Minnesota
Hundreds of settlers were killed, 30,000 were displaced from their homes, and Washington was deeply alarmed
Some feared incorrectly that it might represent a Confederate conspiracy to start a war on the Northwestern frontier
Lincoln ordered thousands of Confederate prisoners of war sent by railroad to put down the uprising
When the Confederates protested forcing Confederate prisoners to fight Indians, Lincoln revoked the policy and none set foot in Minnesota
Lincoln sent General John Pope to Minnesota as commander of the new Department of the Northwest a couple of weeks into the hostilities
Before he arrived, the Fond Du Lac band of Chippewa sent Lincoln a letter begging to go to war for the United States against the Sioux, so Lincoln could send Minnesota's troops to fight the South
Shortly after, a Mille Lacs Band Chief offered the same at St
In it the Chippewa specified that they wanted to use the indigenous rules of warfare
That meant there would be no prisoners of war, no surrender, no peace agreement
Lincoln did not accept the Chippewa offer, as he had no means to control the outcome and women and children were considered legitimate casualties in native American warfare
One of the Chippewa signing the letter, Chief Naw-Gaw-Nub, had received a Presidential medal from Lincoln earlier in the year
Pope was Minnesota Congressman Henry H
The day the Mdewakanton force surrendered at Camp Release, a Chippewa war council met at Minnesota's capitol with another Chippewa offer to Lincoln, to fight the Sioux
Sibley ordered a military commission to review that actions of the captured to try those that had committed war crimes
The legitimacy of military commissions trying opposing combatants had been established during the Mexican War
Sibley thought he had 16 to 20 of men he wanted for trial while Gen
Pope ordered that all detained warriors be tried
When it was done, 303 had been given death sentences that were subject to Presidential review
Lincoln ordered Gen Pope send all of the trial transcripts to Washington where he and two of his staff pored over the trials
The lawyer in Lincoln saw issues
He slowly realized that the trials could be divided into two groups: combat between combatants and combat against civilians
The groups could be identified by their transcripts, the first group were all just three pages in length while the second group had more pages, some up to twelve
He placed 263 cases into the first group and commuted their sentences for the largest mass commutation in history
Into the second group went forty
One he commuted for turning state's witness
Sibley dismissed another when overwhelming proof surfaced exonerating the man
The remaining 38 were executed in the largest mass hanging in U.S
Very quickly questions arose concerning three of the executions that have not been answered
Less than four months after the executions, Lincoln issued General Order 100 that relates more to the Minnesota War than the Civil War
Now a congressman, Alexander Ramsey told Lincoln, in 1864, that he would have gotten more re-election support in Minnesota had he executed all 303 of the Mdewakanton
Lincoln responded, "I could not afford to hang men for votes." The men whose sentences he commuted were sent to a military prison at Davenport, Iowa
A few of those he had released due to the efforts of Bishop Henry Whipple
Whig theory of a presidency
Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of a presidency focused on executing laws while deferring to Congress' responsibility for legislating
Lincoln vetoed only four bills, including the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh Reconstruction program
The 1862 Homestead Act made millions of acres of Western government-held land available for purchase at low cost
The 1862 Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state
The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' first transcontinental railroad, which was completed in 1869
The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was enabled by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s
In the selection and use of his cabinet, Lincoln employed the strengths of his opponents in a manner that emboldened his presidency
Lincoln commented on his thought process, "We need the strongest men of the party in the Cabinet
We needed to hold our own people together
I had looked the party over and concluded that these were the very strongest men
Then I had no right to deprive the country of their services." Goodwin described the group in her biography as a Team of Rivals
There were two measures passed to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a Federal income tax
In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariffs, following the first enacted by Buchanan
He also signed the Revenue Act of 1861, creating the first U.S
income tax—a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $800 ()
The Revenue Act of 1862 adopted rates that increased with income
The Lincoln Administration presided over the expansion of the federal government's economic influence in other areas
The National Banking Act created the system of national banks
The US issued paper currency for the first time, known as greenbacks—printed in green on the reverse side
In 1862, Congress created the Department of Agriculture
Lincoln attacked the media for such behavior, and ordered a military seizure of the two papers which lasted for two days
Lincoln is largely responsible for the Thanksgiving holiday
Thanksgiving had become a regional holiday in New England in the 17th century
It had been sporadically proclaimed by the federal government on irregular dates
The prior proclamation had been during James Madison's presidency 50 years earlier
In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving
In June 1864, Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as Yosemite National Park
Supreme Court appointments

Lincoln's philosophy on court nominations was that "we cannot ask a man what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise him for it
Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known." Lincoln made five appointments to the Supreme Court
Noah Haynes Swayne was an anti-slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union
Samuel Freeman Miller supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist
David Davis was Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860 and had served as a judge in the Illinois court circuit where Lincoln practiced
Democrat Stephen Johnson Field, a previous California Supreme Court justice, provided geographic and political balance
Finally, Lincoln's Treasury Secretary, Salmon P
Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist, would support Reconstruction legislation, and that his appointment united the Republican Party
Foreign policy

Lincoln named his main political rival, William H
Seward, as Secretary of State and left most diplomatic issues in his portfolio
However, Lincoln did select some top diplomats as part of his patronage policy
He also closely watched the handling of the Trent Affair in late 1861 to make sure there was no escalation into a war with Britain
Seward's main role was to keep Britain and France from supporting the Confederacy
He was successful after indicating to Britain and France that the Union would declare war on them if they supported the South
Assassination

John Wilkes Booth was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate secret service
When Booth learned of the Lincolns' intent to attend a play with General Grant, he planned to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at Ford's Theatre
Lincoln and his wife attended the play Our American Cousin on the evening of April 14, just five days after the Union victory at the Battle of Appomattox Courthouse
At the last minute, Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending the play
Lincoln's guest, Major Henry Rathbone, momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped
After being attended by Doctor Charles Leale and two other doctors, Lincoln was taken across the street to Petersen House
After remaining in a coma for eight hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 in the morning on April 15
Stanton saluted and said, "Now he belongs to the ages." Lincoln's body was placed in a flag-wrapped coffin, which was loaded into a hearse and escorted to the White House by Union soldiers
President Johnson was sworn in later that same day
Two weeks later, Booth, refusing to surrender, was tracked to a farm in Virginia, and was mortally shot by Sergeant Boston Corbett and died on April 26
Secretary of War Stanton had issued orders that Booth be taken alive, so Corbett was initially arrested to be court martialed
After a brief interview, Stanton declared him a patriot and dismissed the charge
Funeral and burial 

The late President lay in state, first in the East Room of the White House, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 to 21
The caskets containing Lincoln's body and the body of his son Willie traveled for three weeks on the Lincoln Special funeral train
The train followed a circuitous route from Washington D.C
to Springfield, Illinois, stopping at many cities for memorials attended by hundreds of thousands
Many others gathered along the tracks as the train passed with bands, bonfires, and hymn singing or in silent grief
Poet Walt Whitman composed "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" to eulogize him, one of four poems he wrote about Lincoln
African Americans were especially moved; they had lost their "Moses"
In a larger sense, the reaction was in response to the deaths of so many men in the war
Historians emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow, but noted that some Lincoln haters celebrated his death
Lincoln's body was buried at Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield and now lies within the Lincoln Tomb
Religious and philosophical beliefs

As a young man, Lincoln was a religious skeptic
He was deeply familiar with the Bible, quoting and praising it
He was private about his position on organized religion and respected the beliefs of others
He never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs
Throughout his public career, Lincoln often quoted Scripture
His three most famous speeches—the House Divided Speech, the Gettysburg Address, and his second inaugural—each contain direct allusions to Providence and quotes from Scripture
In the 1840s, Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity, a belief that the human mind was controlled by a higher power
With the death of his son Edward in 1850 he more frequently expressed a dependence on God
He never joined a church, although he frequently attended First Presbyterian Church with his wife beginning in 1852
The death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused him to look toward religion for solace
After Willie's death, he questioned the divine necessity of the war's severity
He wrote at this time that God "could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest
And having begun, He could give the final victory to either side any day
Yet the contest proceeds."

Lincoln did believe in an all-powerful God that shaped events and by 1865 was expressing that belief in major speeches
Lincoln explains therein that the cause, purpose, and result of the war was God's will
On the day Lincoln was assassinated, he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the Holy Land
Health

Lincoln is believed to have had depression, smallpox, and malaria
He took blue mass pills, which contained mercury, to treat constipation
It is unknown to what extent this may have resulted in mercury poisoning
Several claims have been made that Lincoln's health was declining before the assassination
These are often based on photographs of Lincoln appearing to show weight loss and muscle wasting
It is also suspected that he might have had a rare genetic disease such as Marfan syndrome or multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B
Legacy

Republican values 
Lincoln's redefinition of republican values has been stressed by historians such as John Patrick Diggins, Harry V
Jaffa, Vernon Burton, Eric Foner, and Herman J
Lincoln called the Declaration of Independence—which emphasized freedom and equality for all—the "sheet anchor" of republicanism beginning in the 1850s
He did this at a time when the Constitution, which "tolerated slavery", was the focus of most political discourse
Diggins notes, "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself" in the 1860 Cooper Union speech
Instead of focusing on the legality of an argument, he focused on the moral basis of republicanism
His position on war was founded on a legal argument regarding the Constitution as essentially a contract among the states, and all parties must agree to pull out of the contract
Furthermore, it was a national duty to ensure the republic stands in every state
Many soldiers and religious leaders from the north, though, felt the fight for liberty and freedom of slaves was ordained by their moral and religious beliefs
As a Whig activist, Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, infrastructure improvements, and railroads, in opposition to Jacksonian democrats
Lincoln shared the sympathies that the Jacksonians professed for the common man, but he disagreed with the Jacksonian view that the government should be divorced from economic enterprise
Nevertheless, Lincoln admired Andrew Jackson's steeliness as well as his patriotism
According to historian Sean Wilentz:

William C
Harris found that Lincoln's "reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions strengthened his conservatism." James G
He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints
The term "the United States" has historically been used sometimes in the plural ("these United States") and other times in the singular
The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century
Historical reputation 

In surveys of U.S
scholars ranking presidents conducted since 1948, the top three presidents are Lincoln, Washington, and Franklin Delano Roosevelt, although the order varies
Between 1999 and 2011, Lincoln, John F
Kennedy, and Ronald Reagan were the top-ranked presidents in eight public opinion surveys, according to Gallup
A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after George Washington
Lincoln's assassination left him a national martyr
He was viewed by abolitionists as a champion of human liberty
Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party
Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability
Historians have said he was "a classical liberal" in the 19th-century sense
The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C
Roosevelt, preparing America for war, used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan
In the Cold War years, Lincoln's image shifted to a symbol of freedom who brought hope to those oppressed by Communist regimes
He had long been known as the Great Emancipator, but, by the late 1960s, some African American intellectuals, led by Lerone Bennett Jr., denied that Lincoln deserved that title
Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968
He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs and told jokes that ridiculed blacks
Bennett argued that Lincoln opposed social equality and proposed that freed slaves voluntarily move to another country
The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln the emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery, or at least were responsible for pressuring the government to emancipate them
Dirck stated that few Civil War scholars take Bennett seriously, pointing to his "narrow political agenda and faulty research"
Lincoln became a favorite of liberal intellectuals across the world
Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln's image suffered "erosion, fading prestige, benign ridicule" in the late 20th century
In the 21st century, President Barack Obama named Lincoln his favorite president and insisted on using the Lincoln Bible for his inaugural ceremonies
Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light
Memory and memorials

Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of United States currency, the penny and the $5 bill
His likeness also appears on many postage stamps
While he is usually portrayed bearded, he did not grow a beard until 1860 at the suggestion of 11-year-old Grace Bedell
He was the first of five presidents to do so
He has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names, including the capital of Nebraska
The United States Navy   is named after Lincoln, the second Navy ship to bear his name
The Lincoln Memorial is one of the most visited monuments in the nation's capital and is one of the top five most visited National Park Service sites in the country
Ford's Theatre, among the most visited sites in Washington, D.C., is across the street from Petersen House, where Lincoln died
Memorials in Springfield, Illinois, include the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, Lincoln's home, and his tomb
A portrait carving of Lincoln appears with those of three other presidents on Mount Rushmore, which receives about 3 million visitors a year
An influential statue of Lincoln stands in Lincoln Park, Chicago, with recastings given as diplomatic gifts standing in Parliament Square, London, and Parque Lincoln, Mexico City
In 2019, Congress officially dedicated room H-226 in the United States Capitol to Abraham Lincoln
The room is located off National Statuary Hall and served as the post office of the House while then-Representative Abraham Lincoln served in Congress from 1847 to 1849
His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology and the arts
As the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy in the Lyceum in Athens, he began the wider Aristotelian tradition that followed, which set the groundwork for the development of modern science
Little is known about Aristotle's life
He was born in the city of Stagira in northern Greece during the Classical period
His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian
At 17 or 18 he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there till the age of 37 ()
Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored his son Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC
He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls
Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication
Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him
Aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship
Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century
He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church
His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, and were studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and Jean Buridan
Aristotle's influence on logic continued well into the 19th century
In addition, his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics
Life 
In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established
The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points
Aristotle was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki
His father, Nicomachus, was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon
While he was young, Aristotle learned about biology and medical information, which was taught by his father
Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian
Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy
At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy
He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν]
Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC
Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor
After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon
While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece
They had a daughter, whom they also named Pythias
In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander
Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal Academy of Macedon
During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander
Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric
By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum
Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years
While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira
They had a son whom Aristotle named after his father, Nicomachus
If the Suda  an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages  is accurate, he may also have had an erômenos, Palaephatus of Abydus
This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works
He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived
Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students
His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics
A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death
Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled
He died in Chalcis, Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife
Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle logic reached its completion
Organon 

What is today called Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics"
The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics
Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers
The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers
The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning
The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics
Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine
In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed
The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form
Immanent realism 

Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal
Aristotle's ontology places the universal (katholou) in particulars (kath' hekaston), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate
For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance
Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things
When one looks at an apple, for example, one sees an apple, and one can also analyse a form of an apple
In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple
Moreover, one can place an apple next to a book, so that one can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other
Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things
For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form
Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things
In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals
Where Plato spoke of the forms as existing separately from the things that participate in them, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated
So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms
Coming-to-be is a change where the substrate of the thing that has undergone the change has itself changed
In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form
Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else
For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant
Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned
For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting)
Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality
Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and potentiality exists for the sake of the end, actuality, accordingly, is the end
Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do
In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end
Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality
With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"
Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity
However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same
Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from a priori principles
Natural philosophy 
Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences
Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry
Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science"
However, his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method"
For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25)
His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics
In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions
Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets
In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest, since Aristotle does not address friction
With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster
This would imply the equation

 ,

incorrect in modern physics
Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws
Henri Carteron held the "extreme view" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this
Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period
In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium
Four causes 

Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors
Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed
Thus the material cause of a table is wood
It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino
The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter
It tells one what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype
It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation
Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being
A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing
The efficient cause is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds
It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, non-living or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest
In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over
In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions
The final cause (telos) is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities
The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve
This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition
In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life
Optics 

Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in Problems, book 15
The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in
With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular
He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image
Chance and spontaneity 

According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity
Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what is spontaneous"
There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices
the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them." He also wrote descriptions of comets, including the Great Comet of 371 BC
Geology and natural sciences 

Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations
He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime
He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos
His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived
Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen
He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus
His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century
He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark
Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution
Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents
For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes
He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results
To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct
Scientific style 

Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense
He used the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection
In Generation of Animals, he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside
Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these
This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics
It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed
In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific
From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied
Among these correct predictions are the following
Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse
Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier
As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice
Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals
He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder invertebrates as "animals without blood"
Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish)
Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled molluscs (bivalves and gastropods)
He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods
To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is convergent evolution
Philosophers of science have generally concluded that Aristotle was not interested in taxonomy, but zoologists who studied this question in the early 21st century think otherwise
He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design
Psychology

Soul 

Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (peri psychēs), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul
The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally
The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the nous (intellect) and logos (reason)
For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being
Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g
the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement)
In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain
Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon
In On the Soul, Aristotle famously criticizes Plato's theory of the soul and develops his own in response to Plato's
The first criticism is against Plato's view of the soul in the Timaeus that the soul takes up space and is able to come into physical contact with bodies
20th-century scholarship overwhelmingly opposed Aristotle's interpretation of Plato and maintained that he had misunderstood Plato
Today's scholars have tended to re-assess Aristotle's interpretation and have warmed up to it
Aristotle's claim that the soul is the form of a living being is meant to eliminate that possibility and thus rule out reincarnation
Memory 
According to Aristotle in On the Soul, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past
In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered
Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory
A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once
These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian , and thinking
Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present
Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly
A transitional channel is needed and located in past experiences, both for previous experience and present experience
Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences
To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself
Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for
Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another
If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next
When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed
Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression
Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words
Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations
Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed
Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind
A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience
According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled
Dreams 

Aristotle describes sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness
Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, so it is vital to the body
While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness
Since a person cannot sense during sleep they cannot have desire, which is the result of sensation
However, the senses are able to work during sleep, albeit differently, unless they are weary
Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus
In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner
Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then looks away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion
When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression
When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored
However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences
So, dreams result from these lasting impressions
Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience
During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind
Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus
For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings
Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person
This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature
In De Anima iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, phantasia
One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs
He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being
Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences
Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it
If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred
Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream
For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream
Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences
Practical philosophy 
Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric
Ethics 

Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake
He wrote several treatises on ethics, most notably including the Nicomachean Ethics
Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing
An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight
Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (soul) in accordance with reason (logos)
To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence
Politics 

In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics
Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community
Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family, which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part"
He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality
Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others
Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner
The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding
Aristotle's views on women influenced later Western philosophers, who quoted him as an authority until the end of the Middle Ages, but these views have been controversial in modern times
Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element
On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny and sexism
However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men
Economics 

Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages
In Politics, Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade
Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature
In Politics, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money
Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus
For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver
Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages
He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit
It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself
He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural
Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use
Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time
Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable"
He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security
That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it"
Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: enthymeme (proof by syllogism) and paradeigma (proof by example)
Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature"
The forms also differ in their object of imitation
Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average
Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama
While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived
Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry
The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy
Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions
Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis
Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop
Transmission 

More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived
He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields
According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did"
As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones
evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind." Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought"
What follows is an overview of the transmission and influence of his texts and ideas into the modern era
His successor, Theophrastus 

Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the History of Plants, a pioneering work in botany
Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed chamber
Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned
Later Greek philosophy 

The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school
Aristotle's students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus
Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers
He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher
Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly
It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found
The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation
Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not
The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century
John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought
Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations
After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena
Medieval Islamic world 

Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology
Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars
Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers
Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers
Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher"
The title was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy
These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages
Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic
Dante knew Aristotle directly from Latin translations of his works and indirectly through quotations in the works of Albert Magnus
Dante even acknowledges Aristotle's influence explicitly in the poem, specifically when Virgil justifies the Inferno's structure by citing the Nicomachean Ethics
Maimonides also considered Aristotle to be the greatest philosopher that ever lived, and styled him as the "chief of the philosophers"
Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought
Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight
Charles Darwin regarded Aristotle as the most important contributor to the subject of biology
In an 1882 letter he wrote that "Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle"
Surviving works

Corpus Aristotelicum 

The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum
These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school
Loss and preservation 

Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era
His writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school
Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus
Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication
Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes
A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones now possessed came to be found
According to Strabo and Plutarch, after Aristotle's death, his library and writings went to Theophrastus (Aristotle's successor as head of the Lycaeum and the Peripatetic school)
After the death of Theophrastus, the peripatetic library went to Neleus of Scepsis
Some time later, the Kingdom of Pergamon began conscripting books for a royal library, and the heirs of Neleus hid their collection in a cellar to prevent it from being seized for that purpose
Charing
                       House
London
                             George Allen
CHISWICK PRESS:--CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO
TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON
[Illustration:

                          _To J
There is much more difference as
to their best work than in the case of those others who are loved “by
allowance” by convention, and because it is felt to be the right and
proper thing to love them
And in the sect--fairly large and yet
unusually choice--of Austenians or Janites, there would probably be
found partisans of the claim to primacy of almost every one of the
novels
On the other hand,
I, for my part, declare for_ Pride and Prejudice _unhesitatingly
The plot, though not elaborate, is almost
regular enough for Fielding; hardly a character, hardly an incident
could be retrenched without loss to the story
The elopement of Lydia
and Wickham is not, like that of Crawford and Mrs
Rushworth, a_ coup de
théâtre; _it connects itself in the strictest way with the course of the
story earlier, and brings about the denouement with complete propriety
All the minor passages--the loves of Jane and Bingley, the advent of Mr
Collins, the visit to Hunsford, the Derbyshire tour--fit in after the
same unostentatious, but masterly fashion
To me this humour seems to possess a
greater affinity, on the whole, to that of Addison than to any other of
the numerous species of this great British genus
Spectator,” and in
Jane Austen’s genius there was, though nothing mannish, much that was
masculine
But the likeness of quality consists in a great number of
common subdivisions of quality--demureness, extreme minuteness of touch,
avoidance of loud tones and glaring effects
Also there is in both a
certain not inhuman or unamiable cruelty
Addison and in Miss Austen there is, though a
restrained and well-mannered, an insatiable and ruthless delight in
roasting and cutting up a fool
But another_ Spectator _letter--that of the damsel
of fourteen who wishes to marry Mr
Musgrove’s self-deceiving regrets over
her son
And in that sense Miss Austen certainly was one
She may even
have been one in the further sense that, like her own Mr
Bennet, she
took an epicurean delight in dissecting, in displaying, in setting at
work her fools and her mean persons
I think she did take this delight,
and I do not think at all the worse of her for it as a woman, while she
was immensely the better for it as an artist._

_In respect of her art generally, Mr
And I am not so certain that I should
myself use the word “narrow” in connection with her
If her world is a
microcosm, the cosmic quality of it is at least as eminent as the
littleness
She does not touch what she did not feel herself called to
paint; I am not so sure that she could not have painted what she did not
feel herself called to touch
Even Scott
required hill and mountain and ballad, even Coleridge metaphysics and
German to enable them to chip the classical shell
The one was humanity, and the other was art
Take almost any
Frenchman, except the late M
de Maupassant, and watch him laboriously
piling up strokes in the hope of giving a complete impression
You get
none; you are lucky if, discarding two-thirds of what he gives, you can
shape a real impression out of the rest
But with Miss Austen the
myriad, trivial, unforced strokes build up the picture like magic
Nothing is false; nothing is superfluous
When (to take the present book
only) Mr
Collins changed his mind from Jane to Elizabeth “while Mrs
Bennet was stirring the fire” (and we know_ how _Mrs
Bennet would have
stirred the fire), when Mr
Collins is really_ great; _far greater than anything Addison
ever did, almost great enough for Fielding or for Swift himself
It has
been said that no one ever was like him
Collins was impossible or non-existent at
the end of the eighteenth century
It is very interesting that we
possess, in this same gallery, what may be called a spoiled first
draught, or an unsuccessful study of him, in John Dashwood
The
formality, the under-breeding, the meanness, are there; but the portrait
is only half alive, and is felt to be even a little unnatural
Collins is perfectly natural, and perfectly alive
Collins could not have been so satisfactorily
exhibited if his creatress had not adjusted so artfully to him the
figures of Mr
Bennet and of Lady Catherine de Bourgh
Collins himself, has been charged with exaggeration
There is,
perhaps, a very faint shade of colour for the charge; but it seems to me
very faint indeed
Darcy, and even
Miss Elizabeth herself, were, I am inclined to think, rather hard on him
for the “impropriety” of his conduct
His wife was evidently, and must
always have been, a quite irreclaimable fool; and unless he had shot her
or himself there was no way out of it for a man of sense and spirit but
the ironic
It is
difficult to know whether he is most agreeable when talking to his wife,
or when putting Mr
Let us flatter ourselves that_ I _may be the survivor;” and his inquiry
to his colossal cousin as to the compliments which Mr
Bennet we have
glanced at, and it is not easy to say whether she is more exquisitely
amusing or more horribly true
With Mary, Miss Austen has
taken rather less pains, though she has been even more unkind to her;
not merely in the text, but, as we learn from those interesting
traditional appendices which Mr
Austen Leigh has given us, in dooming
her privately to marry “one of Mr
It is at any rate difficult not
to extend to her a share of the respect and affection (affection and
respect of a peculiar kind; doubtless), with which one regards Mr
Collins, when she draws the moral of Lydia’s fall
I sometimes wish
that the exigencies of the story had permitted Miss Austen to unite
these personages, and thus at once achieve a notable mating and soothe
poor Mrs
Only genius could have made Charlotte what she is, yet
not disagreeable; Wickham what he is, without investing him either with
a cheap Don Juanish attractiveness or a disgusting rascality
It has sometimes, I believe, been urged that his pride is
unnatural at first in its expression and later in its yielding, while
his falling in love at all is not extremely probable
Here again I
cannot go with the objectors
Nothing in
even our author is finer and more delicately touched than the change of
his demeanour at the sudden meeting in the grounds of Pemberley
Had he
been a bad prig or a bad coxcomb, he might have been still smarting
under his rejection, or suspicious that the girl had come
husband-hunting
His being neither is exactly consistent with the
probable feelings of a man spoilt in the common sense, but not really
injured in disposition, and thoroughly in love
Elizabeth of course belongs to the_
allegro _or_ allegra _division of the army of Venus
Elizabeth can give
at least as good as she gets when she is attacked; but she never
“scratches,” and she never attacks first
Then
too she is a perfectly natural girl
She does not disguise from herself
or anybody that she resents Darcy’s first ill-mannered personality with
as personal a feeling
Though not in the least “impudent and mannish grown,”
she has no mere sensibility, no nasty niceness about her
There were better sense in the sad mechanic
exercise of determining the reason of its absence where it is not
Their names are, in chronological order, Elizabeth
Bennet, Diana Vernon, Argemone Lavington, Beatrix Esmond, and Barbara
Grant
I should have been most in love with Beatrix and Argemone; I
should, I think, for mere occasional companionship, have preferred Diana
and Barbara
1

“He came down to see the place”                                        2

Mr
Bennet                                                    5

“I hope Mr
22

“Without once opening his lips”                                       24

Tailpiece to Chapter V
Bennet and her two youngest girls”                              53

Heading to Chapter X
60

“No, no; stay where you are”                                          67

“Piling up the fire”                                                  69

Heading to Chapter XII
84

“Protested that he never read novels”                                 87

Heading to Chapter XV
95

“The officers of the ----shire”                                       97

“Delighted to see their dear friend again”                           108

Heading to Chapter XVIII
113

“Such very superior dancing is not often seen”                       118

“To assure you in the most animated language”                        132

Heading to Chapter XX
139

“They entered the breakfast-room”                                    143

Heading to Chapter XXI
146

“Walked back with them”                                              148

Heading to Chapter XXII
209

“He never failed to inform them”                                     211

“The gentlemen accompanied him”                                      213

Heading to Chapter XXXI
221

“Accompanied by their aunt”                                          225

“On looking up”                                                      228

Heading to Chapter XXXIV
235

“Hearing herself called”                                             243

Heading to Chapter XXXVI
318

“To make herself agreeable to all”                                   321

“Engaged by the river”                                               327

Heading to Chapter XLVI
Darcy with him”                                                 404

“Jane happened to look round”                                        415

“Mrs
Long and her nieces”                                           420

“Lizzy, my dear, I want to speak to you”                             422

Heading to Chapter LVI
Bennet,” said his lady to him one day, “have you heard that
Netherfield Park is let at last?”

Mr
“But it is,” returned she; “for Mrs
Long has just been here, and she
told me all about it.”

Mr
“Do not you want to know who has taken it?” cried his wife, impatiently
“_You_ want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it.”

[Illustration:

“He came down to see the place”

[_Copyright 1894 by George Allen._]]

This was invitation enough
“Why, my dear, you must know, Mrs
A single man of large fortune; four or
five thousand a year
What a fine thing for our girls!”

“How so
how can it affect them?”

“My dear Mr
Bennet,” replied his wife, “how can you be so tiresome
You
must know that I am thinking of his marrying one of them.”

“Is that his design in settling here?”

“Design
But it is very likely that he
_may_ fall in love with one of them, and therefore you must visit him as
soon as he comes.”

“I see no occasion for that
You and the girls may go--or you may send
them by themselves, which perhaps will be still better; for as you are
as handsome as any of them, Mr
Bingley might like you the best of the
party.”

“My dear, you flatter me
I certainly _have_ had my share of beauty, but
I do not pretend to be anything extraordinary now
Bingley when he comes into
the neighbourhood.”

“It is more than I engage for, I assure you.”

“But consider your daughters
Only think what an establishment it would
be for one of them
Sir William and Lady Lucas are determined to go,
merely on that account; for in general, you know, they visit no new
comers
Indeed you must go, for it will be impossible for _us_ to visit
him, if you do not.”

“You are over scrupulous, surely
Lizzy is not a bit better than the
others: and I am sure she is not half so handsome as Jane, nor half so
good-humoured as Lydia
Bennet, how can you abuse your own children in such a way
You have no compassion on my poor nerves.”

“You mistake me, my dear
I have a high respect for your nerves
Bennet was so odd a mixture of quick parts, sarcastic humour,
reserve, and caprice, that the experience of three-and-twenty years had
been insufficient to make his wife understand his character
_Her_ mind
was less difficult to develope
She was a woman of mean understanding,
little information, and uncertain temper
When she was discontented, she
fancied herself nervous
The business of her life was to get her
daughters married: its solace was visiting and news
[Illustration: M^{r.} & M^{rs.} Bennet

[_Copyright 1894 by George Allen._]]




[Illustration:

“I hope Mr
Bingley will like it”

[_Copyright 1894 by George Allen._]]




CHAPTER II
Bennet was among the earliest of those who waited on Mr
He
had always intended to visit him, though to the last always assuring his
wife that he should not go; and till the evening after the visit was
paid she had no knowledge of it
It was then disclosed in the following
manner
Observing his second daughter employed in trimming a hat, he
suddenly addressed her with,--

“I hope Mr
Bingley will like it, Lizzy.”

“We are not in a way to know _what_ Mr
Bingley likes,” said her mother,
resentfully, “since we are not to visit.”

“But you forget, mamma,” said Elizabeth, “that we shall meet him at the
assemblies, and that Mrs
Long has promised to introduce him.”

“I do not believe Mrs
She is a selfish, hypocritical woman, and I have no opinion
of her.”

“No more have I,” said Mr
Bennet; “and I am glad to find that you do
not depend on her serving you.”

Mrs
Bennet deigned not to make any reply; but, unable to contain
herself, began scolding one of her daughters
“Don’t keep coughing so, Kitty, for heaven’s sake
Have a little
compassion on my nerves
You tear them to pieces.”

“Kitty has no discretion in her coughs,” said her father; “she times
them ill.”

“I do not cough for my own amusement,” replied Kitty, fretfully
“When
is your next ball to be, Lizzy?”

“To-morrow fortnight.”

“Ay, so it is,” cried her mother, “and Mrs
Bingley to _her_.”

“Impossible, Mr
Bennet, impossible, when I am not acquainted with him
myself; how can you be so teasing?”

“I honour your circumspection
A fortnight’s acquaintance is certainly
very little
One cannot know what a man really is by the end of a
fortnight
But if _we_ do not venture, somebody else will; and after
all, Mrs
Long and her nieces must stand their chance; and, therefore,
as she will think it an act of kindness, if you decline the office, I
will take it on myself.”

The girls stared at their father
Bennet said only, “Nonsense,
nonsense!”

“What can be the meaning of that emphatic exclamation?” cried he
“Do
you consider the forms of introduction, and the stress that is laid on
them, as nonsense
I cannot quite agree with you _there_
For you are a young lady of deep reflection, I know, and read
great books, and make extracts.”

Mary wished to say something very sensible, but knew not how
“While Mary is adjusting her ideas,” he continued, “let us return to Mr
“I am sorry to hear _that_; but why did you not tell me so before
If I
had known as much this morning, I certainly would not have called on
him
It is very unlucky; but as I have actually paid the visit, we
cannot escape the acquaintance now.”

The astonishment of the ladies was just what he wished--that of Mrs
Bennet perhaps surpassing the rest; though when the first tumult of joy
was over, she began to declare that it was what she had expected all the
while
“How good it was in you, my dear Mr
But I knew I should
persuade you at last
I was sure you loved your girls too well to
neglect such an acquaintance
And it is such a
good joke, too, that you should have gone this morning, and never said a
word about it till now.”

“Now, Kitty, you may cough as much as you choose,” said Mr
Bennet; and,
as he spoke, he left the room, fatigued with the raptures of his wife
“What an excellent father you have, girls,” said she, when the door was
shut
“I do not know how you will ever make him amends for his kindness;
or me either, for that matter
At our time of life, it is not so
pleasant, I can tell you, to be making new acquaintances every day; but
for your sakes we would do anything
Lydia, my love, though you _are_
the youngest, I dare say Mr
Bennet’s visit, and determining when they should ask him to
dinner
[Illustration: “I’m the tallest”]




[Illustration:

     “He rode a black horse”
]




CHAPTER III
[Illustration]

Not all that Mrs
Bennet, however, with the assistance of her five
daughters, could ask on the subject, was sufficient to draw from her
husband any satisfactory description of Mr
Her report was highly favourable
Sir William had been
delighted with him
He was quite young, wonderfully handsome, extremely
agreeable, and, to crown the whole, he meant to be at the next assembly
with a large party
Nothing could be more delightful
To be fond of
dancing was a certain step towards falling in love; and very lively
hopes of Mr
Bingley’s heart were entertained
“If I can but see one of my daughters happily settled at Netherfield,”
said Mrs
Bennet to her husband, “and all the others equally well
married, I shall have nothing to wish for.”

In a few days Mr
Bennet’s visit, and sat about ten
minutes with him in his library
He had entertained hopes of being
admitted to a sight of the young ladies, of whose beauty he had heard
much; but he saw only the father
The ladies were somewhat more
fortunate, for they had the advantage of ascertaining, from an upper
window, that he wore a blue coat and rode a black horse
An invitation to dinner was soon afterwards despatched; and already had
Mrs
Bennet planned the courses that were to do credit to her
housekeeping, when an answer arrived which deferred it all
Bingley
was obliged to be in town the following day, and consequently unable to
accept the honour of their invitation, etc
Bingley was to bring twelve ladies and
seven gentlemen with him to the assembly
And when the party entered the
assembly-room, it consisted of only five altogether: Mr
Bingley, his
two sisters, the husband of the eldest, and another young man
Bingley was good-looking and gentlemanlike: he had a pleasant
countenance, and easy, unaffected manners
His sisters were fine women,
with an air of decided fashion
Hurst, merely
looked the gentleman; but his friend Mr
The gentlemen
pronounced him to be a fine figure of a man, the ladies declared he was
much handsomer than Mr
Such amiable qualities must speak for
themselves
What a contrast between him and his friend
Darcy danced
only once with Mrs
Hurst and once with Miss Bingley, declined being
introduced to any other lady, and spent the rest of the evening in
walking about the room, speaking occasionally to one of his own party
He was the proudest, most disagreeable man in
the world, and everybody hoped that he would never come there again
Amongst the most violent against him was Mrs
Bennet, whose dislike of
his general behaviour was sharpened into particular resentment by his
having slighted one of her daughters
Elizabeth Bennet had been obliged, by the scarcity of gentlemen, to sit
down for two dances; and during part of that time, Mr
Darcy had been
standing near enough for her to overhear a conversation between him and
Mr
Bingley, who came from the dance for a few minutes to press his
friend to join it
“Come, Darcy,” said he, “I must have you dance
I hate to see you
standing about by yourself in this stupid manner
You had much better
dance.”

“I certainly shall not
You know how I detest it, unless I am
particularly acquainted with my partner
At such an assembly as this, it
would be insupportable
Darcy, looking at the eldest Miss Bennet
“Oh, she is the most beautiful creature I ever beheld
But there is one
of her sisters sitting down just behind you, who is very pretty, and I
dare say very agreeable
You had better return to your partner and enjoy her
smiles, for you are wasting your time with me.”

Mr
Darcy walked off; and Elizabeth
remained with no very cordial feelings towards him
She told the story,
however, with great spirit among her friends; for she had a lively,
playful disposition, which delighted in anything ridiculous
The evening altogether passed off pleasantly to the whole family
Bennet had seen her eldest daughter much admired by the Netherfield
party
Bingley had danced with her twice, and she had been
distinguished by his sisters
Jane was as much gratified by this as her
mother could be, though in a quieter way
They returned, therefore, in good
spirits to Longbourn, the village where they lived, and of which they
were the principal inhabitants
With a
book, he was regardless of time; and on the present occasion he had a
good deal of curiosity as to the event of an evening which had raised
such splendid expectations
He had rather hoped that all his wife’s
views on the stranger would be disappointed; but he soon found that he
had a very different story to hear
Bennet,” as she entered the room, “we have had a most
delightful evening, a most excellent ball
Jane was so admired, nothing could be like it
Everybody said how well
she looked; and Mr
Bingley thought her quite beautiful, and danced with
her twice
Only think of _that_, my dear: he actually danced with her
twice; and she was the only creature in the room that he asked a second
time
First of all, he asked Miss Lucas
I was so vexed to see him stand
up with her; but, however, he did not admire her at all; indeed, nobody
can, you know; and he seemed quite struck with Jane as she was going
down the dance
So he inquired who she was, and got introduced, and
asked her for the two next
For God’s sake, say no more of
his partners
O that he had sprained his ancle in the first dance!”

“Oh, my dear,” continued Mrs
Bennet, “I am quite delighted with him
and his sisters are charming women
I never
in my life saw anything more elegant than their dresses
Hurst’s gown----”

Here she was interrupted again
Bennet protested against any
description of finery
She was therefore obliged to seek another branch
of the subject, and related, with much bitterness of spirit, and some
exaggeration, the shocking rudeness of Mr
“But I can assure you,” she added, “that Lizzy does not lose much by not
suiting _his_ fancy; for he is a most disagreeable, horrid man, not at
all worth pleasing
So high and so conceited, that there was no enduring
him
He walked here, and he walked there, fancying himself so very
great
Not handsome enough to dance with
I wish you had been there, my
dear, to have given him one of your set-downs
I quite detest the man.”




[Illustration]




CHAPTER IV
[Illustration]

When Jane and Elizabeth were alone, the former, who had been cautious in
her praise of Mr
Bingley before, expressed to her sister how very much
she admired him
“He is just what a young-man ought to be,” said she, “sensible,
good-humoured, lively; and I never saw such happy manners
so much ease,
with such perfect good breeding!”

“He is also handsome,” replied Elizabeth, “which a young man ought
likewise to be if he possibly can
His character is thereby complete.”

“I was very much flattered by his asking me to dance a second time
I
did not expect such a compliment.”

“Did not you
But that is one great difference between
us
Compliments always take _you_ by surprise, and _me_ never
What
could be more natural than his asking you again
He could not help
seeing that you were about five times as pretty as every other woman in
the room
No thanks to his gallantry for that
Well, he certainly is
very agreeable, and I give you leave to like him
You have liked many a
stupider person.”

“Dear Lizzy!”

“Oh, you are a great deal too apt, you know, to like people in general
You never see a fault in anybody
All the world are good and agreeable
in your eyes
With _your_
good sense, to be so honestly blind to the follies and nonsense of
others
Affectation of candour is common enough; one meets with it
everywhere
But to be candid without ostentation or design,--to take the
good of everybody’s character and make it still better, and say nothing
of the bad,--belongs to you alone
And so, you like this man’s sisters,
too, do you
Their manners are not equal to his.”

“Certainly not, at first; but they are very pleasing women when you
converse with them
They were, in fact, very fine
ladies; not deficient in good-humour when they were pleased, nor in the
power of being agreeable where they chose it; but proud and conceited
They were of a respectable family in
the north of England; a circumstance more deeply impressed on their
memories than that their brother’s fortune and their own had been
acquired by trade
Bingley inherited property to the amount of nearly a hundred
thousand pounds from his father, who had intended to purchase an estate,
but did not live to do it
His sisters were very anxious for his having an estate of his own; but
though he was now established only as a tenant, Miss Bingley was by no
means unwilling to preside at his table; nor was Mrs
Hurst, who had
married a man of more fashion than fortune, less disposed to consider
his house as her home when it suited her
Bingley had not been of
age two years when he was tempted, by an accidental recommendation, to
look at Netherfield House
He did look at it, and into it, for half an
hour; was pleased with the situation and the principal rooms, satisfied
with what the owner said in its praise, and took it immediately
Between him and Darcy there was a very steady friendship, in spite of a
great opposition of character
On the strength of Darcy’s regard, Bingley
had the firmest reliance, and of his judgment the highest opinion
In
understanding, Darcy was the superior
Bingley was by no means
deficient; but Darcy was clever
He was at the same time haughty,
reserved, and fastidious; and his manners, though well bred, were not
inviting
In that respect his friend had greatly the advantage
Bingley
was sure of being liked wherever he appeared; Darcy was continually
giving offence
The manner in which they spoke of the Meryton assembly was sufficiently
characteristic
Miss Bennet he acknowledged to be pretty; but she smiled too
much
Hurst and her sister allowed it to be so; but still they admired
her and liked her, and pronounced her to be a sweet girl, and one whom
they should not object to know more of
Miss Bennet was therefore
established as a sweet girl; and their brother felt authorized by such
commendation to think of her as he chose
[Illustration: [_Copyright 1894 by George Allen._]]




CHAPTER V
[Illustration]

Within a short walk of Longbourn lived a family with whom the Bennets
were particularly intimate
Sir William Lucas had been formerly in trade
in Meryton, where he had made a tolerable fortune, and risen to the
honour of knighthood by an address to the king during his mayoralty
The
distinction had, perhaps, been felt too strongly
For,
though elated by his rank, it did not render him supercilious; on the
contrary, he was all attention to everybody
By nature inoffensive,
friendly, and obliging, his presentation at St
Lady Lucas was a very good kind of woman, not too clever to be a
valuable neighbour to Mrs
The eldest
of them, a sensible, intelligent young woman, about twenty-seven, was
Elizabeth’s intimate friend
That the Miss Lucases and the Miss Bennets should meet to talk over a
ball was absolutely necessary; and the morning after the assembly
brought the former to Longbourn to hear and to communicate
“_You_ began the evening well, Charlotte,” said Mrs
Bennet, with civil
self-command, to Miss Lucas
Bingley’s first choice.”

“Yes; but he seemed to like his second better.”

“Oh, you mean Jane, I suppose, because he danced with her twice
To be
sure that _did_ seem as if he admired her--indeed, I rather believe he
_did_--I heard something about it--but I hardly know what--something
about Mr
Robinson.”

“Perhaps you mean what I overheard between him and Mr
Robinson: did not
I mention it to you
Robinson’s asking him how he liked our Meryton
assemblies, and whether he did not think there were a great many pretty
women in the room, and _which_ he thought the prettiest
and his
answering immediately to the last question, ‘Oh, the eldest Miss Bennet,
beyond a doubt: there cannot be two opinions on that point.’”

“Upon my word
Well, that was very decided, indeed--that does seem as
if--but, however, it may all come to nothing, you know.”

“_My_ overhearings were more to the purpose than _yours_, Eliza,” said
Charlotte
Darcy is not so well worth listening to as his friend,
is he
to be only just _tolerable_.”

“I beg you will not put it into Lizzy’s head to be vexed by his
ill-treatment, for he is such a disagreeable man that it would be quite
a misfortune to be liked by him
Is not there a little mistake?” said Jane
With _them_ he is remarkably
agreeable.”

“I do not believe a word of it, my dear
If he had been so very
agreeable, he would have talked to Mrs
But I can guess how it
was; everybody says that he is eat up with pride, and I dare say he had
heard somehow that Mrs
Long does not keep a carriage, and had to come
to the ball in a hack chaise.”

“I do not mind his not talking to Mrs
One cannot wonder that so
very fine a young man, with family, fortune, everything in his favour,
should think highly of himself
Vanity and pride are different
things, though the words are often used synonymously
A person may be
proud without being vain
Pride relates more to our opinion of
ourselves; vanity to what we would have others think of us.”

“If I were as rich as Mr
Darcy,” cried a young Lucas, who came with his
sisters, “I should not care how proud I was
I would keep a pack of
foxhounds, and drink a bottle of wine every day.”

“Then you would drink a great deal more than you ought,” said Mrs
[Illustration]




[Illustration]




CHAPTER VI
[Illustration]

The ladies of Longbourn soon waited on those of Netherfield
The visit
was returned in due form
Miss Bennet’s pleasing manners grew on the
good-will of Mrs
She mentioned this to her friend, Miss
Lucas
“It may, perhaps, be pleasant,” replied Charlotte, “to be able to impose
on the public in such a case; but it is sometimes a disadvantage to be
so very guarded
There is so much of gratitude or vanity in almost every
attachment, that it is not safe to leave any to itself
We can all
_begin_ freely--a slight preference is natural enough; but there are
very few of us who have heart enough to be really in love without
encouragement
In nine cases out of ten, a woman had better show _more_
affection than she feels
Bingley likes your sister undoubtedly; but he
may never do more than like her, if she does not help him on.”

“But she does help him on, as much as her nature will allow
Jane should
therefore make the most of every half hour in which she can command his
attention
But
these are not Jane’s feelings; she is not acting by design
As yet she
cannot even be certain of the degree of her own regard, nor of its
reasonableness
She has known him only a fortnight
She danced four
dances with him at Meryton; she saw him one morning at his own house,
and has since dined in company with him four times
This is not quite
enough to make her understand his character.”

“Not as you represent it
Happiness in marriage is entirely a matter of chance
If
the dispositions of the parties are ever so well known to each other, or
ever so similar beforehand, it does not advance their felicity in the
least
You know it is not
sound, and that you would never act in this way yourself.”

Occupied in observing Mr
Bingley’s attention to her sister, Elizabeth
was far from suspecting that she was herself becoming an object of some
interest in the eyes of his friend
Darcy had at first scarcely
allowed her to be pretty: he had looked at her without admiration at the
ball; and when they next met, he looked at her only to criticise
To
this discovery succeeded some others equally mortifying
Of
this she was perfectly unaware: to her he was only the man who made
himself agreeable nowhere, and who had not thought her handsome enough
to dance with
He began to wish to know more of her; and, as a step towards conversing
with her himself, attended to her conversation with others
It was at Sir William Lucas’s, where a large party were
assembled
Darcy mean,” said she to Charlotte, “by listening to my
conversation with Colonel Forster?”

“That is a question which Mr
Darcy only can answer.”

“But if he does it any more, I shall certainly let him know that I see
what he is about
“I am going
to open the instrument, Eliza, and you know what follows.”

“You are a very strange creature by way of a friend!--always wanting me
to play and sing before anybody and everybody
There is
nothing like dancing, after all
“Your friend performs delightfully,” he
continued, after a pause, on seeing Bingley join the group; “and I doubt
not that you are an adept in the science yourself, Mr
Darcy.”

“You saw me dance at Meryton, I believe, sir.”

“Yes, indeed, and received no inconsiderable pleasure from the sight
Darcy, you must allow
me to present this young lady to you as a very desirable partner
You
cannot refuse to dance, I am sure, when so much beauty is before you.”
And, taking her hand, he would have given it to Mr
I entreat you
not to suppose that I moved this way in order to beg for a partner.”

Mr
Darcy, with grave propriety, requested to be allowed the honour of
her hand, but in vain
Elizabeth was determined; nor did Sir William at
all shake her purpose by his attempt at persuasion
Darcy is all politeness,” said Elizabeth, smiling
“He is, indeed: but considering the inducement, my dear Miss Eliza, we
cannot wonder at his complaisance; for who would object to such a
partner?”

Elizabeth looked archly, and turned away
The insipidity, and yet the
noise--the nothingness, and yet the self-importance, of all these
people
What would I give to hear your strictures on them!”

“Your conjecture is totally wrong, I assure you
My mind was more
agreeably engaged
Darcy replied, with great intrepidity,--

“Miss Elizabeth Bennet.”

“Miss Elizabeth Bennet!” repeated Miss Bingley
How long has she been such a favourite
and pray when am I to wish you
joy?”

“That is exactly the question which I expected you to ask
A lady’s
imagination is very rapid; it jumps from admiration to love, from love
to matrimony, in a moment
I knew you would be wishing me joy.”

“Nay, if you are so serious about it, I shall consider the matter as
absolutely settled
[Illustration:

     “A note for Miss Bennet”

[_Copyright 1894 by George Allen._]]




CHAPTER VII
Her father had been an attorney in Meryton, and
had left her four thousand pounds
She had a sister married to a Mr
Philips, who had been a clerk to their
father and succeeded him in the business, and a brother settled in
London in a respectable line of trade
Philips were now productive of the most interesting
intelligence
Every day added something to their knowledge of the
officers’ names and connections
Their lodgings were not long a secret,
and at length they began to know the officers themselves
Philips
visited them all, and this opened to his nieces a source of felicity
unknown before
They could talk of nothing but officers; and Mr
Bingley’s large fortune, the mention of which gave animation to their
mother, was worthless in their eyes when opposed to the regimentals of
an ensign
After listening one morning to their effusions on this subject, Mr
Bennet coolly observed,--

“From all that I can collect by your manner of talking, you must be two
of the silliest girls in the country
“I am astonished, my dear,” said Mrs
Bennet, “that you should be so
ready to think your own children silly
I
had hoped that our sentiments coincided in every particular, but I must
so far differ from you as to think our two youngest daughters uncommonly
foolish.”

“My dear Mr
Bennet, you must not expect such girls to have the sense of
their father and mother
When they get to our age, I dare say they will
not think about officers any more than we do
Bennet was prevented replying by the entrance of the footman with a
note for Miss Bennet; it came from Netherfield, and the servant waited
for an answer
Bennet’s eyes sparkled with pleasure, and she was
eagerly calling out, while her daughter read,--

“Well, Jane, who is it from
Well,
Jane, make haste and tell us; make haste, my love.”

“It is from Miss Bingley,” said Jane, and then read it aloud
Come as soon as you can on the receipt of
     this
My brother and the gentlemen are to dine with the officers
Yours ever,

“CAROLINE BINGLEY.”

“With the officers!” cried Lydia: “I wonder my aunt did not tell us of
_that_.”

“Dining out,” said Mrs
Bennet; “that is very unlucky.”

“Can I have the carriage?” said Jane
Bingley’s chaise to go to Meryton;
and the Hursts have no horses to theirs.”

“I had much rather go in the coach.”

“But, my dear, your father cannot spare the horses, I am sure
They are
wanted in the farm, Mr
Her hopes were answered; Jane had not been gone long before it
rained hard
Her sisters were uneasy for her, but her mother was
delighted
The rain continued the whole evening without intermission;
Jane certainly could not come back
“This was a lucky idea of mine, indeed!” said Mrs
Bennet, more than
once, as if the credit of making it rain were all her own
Till the next
morning, however, she was not aware of all the felicity of her
contrivance
My kind friends will
     not hear of my returning home till I am better
They insist also on
     my seeing Mr
Jones--therefore do not be alarmed if you should hear
     of his having been to me--and, excepting a sore throat and a
     headache, there is not much the matter with me
“Yours, etc.”

“Well, my dear,” said Mr
Bennet, when Elizabeth had read the note
aloud, “if your daughter should have a dangerous fit of illness--if she
should die--it would be a comfort to know that it was all in pursuit of
Mr
Bingley, and under your orders.”

“Oh, I am not at all afraid of her dying
People do not die of little
trifling colds
As long as she stays
there, it is all very well
“How can you be so silly,” cried her mother, “as to think of such a
thing, in all this dirt
You will not be fit to be seen when you get
there.”

“I shall be very fit to see Jane--which is all I want.”

“Is this a hint to me, Lizzy,” said her father, “to send for the
horses?”

“No, indeed
I do not wish to avoid the walk
The distance is nothing,
when one has a motive; only three miles
Elizabeth accepted their company, and the three young ladies set off
together
She was shown into the breakfast parlour, where all but Jane were
assembled, and where her appearance created a great deal of surprise
That she should have walked three miles so early in the day in such
dirty weather, and by herself, was almost incredible to Mrs
Hurst and
Miss Bingley; and Elizabeth was convinced that they held her in contempt
for it
She was received, however, very politely by them; and in their
brother’s manners there was something better than politeness--there was
good-humour and kindness
The former was divided between admiration of the
brilliancy which exercise had given to her complexion and doubt as to
the occasion’s justifying her coming so far alone
The latter was
thinking only of his breakfast
Her inquiries after her sister were not very favourably answered
Miss
Bennet had slept ill, and though up, was very feverish, and not well
enough to leave her room
She was not equal,
however, to much conversation; and when Miss Bingley left them together,
could attempt little beside expressions of gratitude for the
extraordinary kindness she was treated with
Elizabeth silently attended
her
When breakfast was over, they were joined by the sisters; and Elizabeth
began to like them herself, when she saw how much affection and
solicitude they showed for Jane
The advice
was followed readily, for the feverish symptoms increased, and her head
ached acutely
Elizabeth did not quit her room for a moment, nor were
the other ladies often absent; the gentlemen being out, they had in fact
nothing to do elsewhere
When the clock struck three, Elizabeth felt that she must go, and very
unwillingly said so
Elizabeth most thankfully consented, and a servant was
despatched to Longbourn, to acquaint the family with her stay, and bring
back a supply of clothes
[Illustration:

“The Apothecary came”
]




[Illustration:

“covering a screen”
]




CHAPTER VIII
[Illustration]

At five o’clock the two ladies retired to dress, and at half-past six
Elizabeth was summoned to dinner
To the civil inquiries which then
poured in, and amongst which she had the pleasure of distinguishing the
much superior solicitude of Mr
Bingley, she could not make a very
favourable answer
Their brother, indeed, was the only one of the party whom she could
regard with any complacency
His anxiety for Jane was evident, and his
attentions to herself most pleasing; and they prevented her feeling
herself so much an intruder as she believed she was considered by the
others
She had very little notice from any but him
Miss Bingley was
engrossed by Mr
Darcy, her sister scarcely less so; and as for Mr
Hurst, by whom Elizabeth sat, he was an indolent man, who lived only to
eat, drink, and play at cards, who, when he found her prefer a plain
dish to a ragout, had nothing to say to her
When dinner was over, she returned directly to Jane, and Miss Bingley
began abusing her as soon as she was out of the room
Her manners were
pronounced to be very bad indeed,--a mixture of pride and impertinence:
she had no conversation, no style, no taste, no beauty
Hurst
thought the same, and added,--

“She has nothing, in short, to recommend her, but being an excellent
walker
I shall never forget her appearance this morning
She really
looked almost wild.”

“She did indeed, Louisa
I could hardly keep my countenance
Very
nonsensical to come at all
Why must _she_ be scampering about the
country, because her sister had a cold
I thought Miss Elizabeth Bennet looked remarkably well
when she came into the room this morning
Her dirty petticoat quite
escaped my notice.”

“_You_ observed it, Mr
It seems to me to show an abominable sort of conceited independence,
a most country-town indifference to decorum.”

“It shows an affection for her sister that is very pleasing,” said
Bingley
Hurst began again,--

“I have an excessive regard for Jane Bennet,--she is really a very sweet
girl,--and I wish with all my heart she were well settled
To this speech Bingley made no answer; but his sisters gave it their
hearty assent, and indulged their mirth for some time at the expense of
their dear friend’s vulgar relations
With a renewal of tenderness, however, they repaired to her room on
leaving the dining-parlour, and sat with her till summoned to coffee
Hurst looked at her with astonishment
“Do you prefer reading to cards?” said he; “that is rather singular.”

“Miss Eliza Bennet,” said Miss Bingley, “despises cards
He immediately offered to fetch her
others; all that his library afforded
“I am astonished,” said Miss Bingley, “that my father should have left
so small a collection of books
What a delightful library you have at
Pemberley, Mr
I am sure you neglect nothing that can add to the beauties of
that noble place
Bingley and his eldest
sister, to observe the game
“Is Miss Darcy much grown since the spring?” said Miss Bingley: “will
she be as tall as I am?”

“I think she will
She is now about Miss Elizabeth Bennet’s height, or
rather taller.”

“How I long to see her again
I never met with anybody who delighted me
so much
Such a countenance, such manners, and so extremely accomplished
for her age
Her performance on the pianoforte is exquisite.”

“It is amazing to me,” said Bingley, “how young ladies can have patience
to be so very accomplished as they all are.”

“All young ladies accomplished
My dear Charles, what do you mean?”

“Yes, all of them, I think
They all paint tables, cover screens, and
net purses
The word is applied to many a woman who deserves it no
otherwise than by netting a purse or covering a screen; but I am very
far from agreeing with you in your estimation of ladies in general
I
cannot boast of knowing more than half-a-dozen in the whole range of my
acquaintance that are really accomplished.”

“Nor I, I am sure,” said Miss Bingley
I rather wonder now at your knowing _any_.”

“Are you so severe upon your own sex as to doubt the possibility of all
this?”

“_I_ never saw such a woman
_I_ never saw such capacity, and taste, and
application, and elegance, as you describe, united.”

Mrs
Hurst and Miss Bingley both cried out against the injustice of her
implied doubt, and were both protesting that they knew many women who
answered this description, when Mr
Hurst called them to order, with
bitter complaints of their inattention to what was going forward
As all
conversation was thereby at an end, Elizabeth soon afterwards left the
room
Whatever bears affinity to cunning is
despicable.”

Miss Bingley was not so entirely satisfied with this reply as to
continue the subject
Elizabeth joined them again only to say that her sister was worse, and
that she could not leave her
Jones’s being sent for
immediately; while his sisters, convinced that no country advice could
be of any service, recommended an express to town for one of the most
eminent physicians
This she would not hear of; but she was not so
unwilling to comply with their brother’s proposal; and it was settled
that Mr
Jones should be sent for early in the morning, if Miss Bennet
were not decidedly better
Bingley was quite uncomfortable; his sisters
declared that they were miserable
[Illustration:

M^{rs} Bennet and her two youngest girls

[_Copyright 1894 by George Allen._]]




CHAPTER IX
Bingley by a housemaid,
and some time afterwards from the two elegant ladies who waited on his
sisters
In spite of this amendment, however, she requested to have a
note sent to Longbourn, desiring her mother to visit Jane, and form her
own judgment of her situation
The note was immediately despatched, and
its contents as quickly complied with
Bennet, accompanied by her
two youngest girls, reached Netherfield soon after the family breakfast
Had she found Jane in any apparent danger, Mrs
She
would not listen, therefore, to her daughter’s proposal of being carried
home; neither did the apothecary, who arrived about the same time, think
it at all advisable
After sitting a little while with Jane, on Miss
Bingley’s appearance and invitation, the mother and three daughters all
attended her into the breakfast parlour
Bingley met them with hopes
that Mrs
Bennet had not found Miss Bennet worse than she expected
“Indeed I have, sir,” was her answer
“She is a great deal too ill to be
moved
Jones says we must not think of moving her
We must trespass
a little longer on your kindness.”

“Removed!” cried Bingley
Bennet was profuse in her acknowledgments
I often tell my other girls they are nothing to
_her_
Bingley, and a charming prospect
over that gravel walk
I do not know a place in the country that is
equal to Netherfield
At present, however, I consider myself as quite fixed here.”

“That is exactly what I should have supposed of you,” said Elizabeth
“You begin to comprehend me, do you?” cried he, turning towards her
“Oh yes--I understand you perfectly.”

“I wish I might take this for a compliment; but to be so easily seen
through, I am afraid, is pitiful.”

“That is as it happens
It must be an amusing study.”

“Yes; but intricate characters are the _most_ amusing
They have at
least that advantage.”

“The country,” said Darcy, “can in general supply but few subjects for
such a study
Bennet, offended by his manner of mentioning a
country neighbourhood
“I assure you there is quite as much of _that_
going on in the country as in town.”

Everybody was surprised; and Darcy, after looking at her for a moment,
turned silently away
The country is a vast deal
pleasanter, is not it, Mr
Bingley?”

“When I am in the country,” he replied, “I never wish to leave it; and
when I am in town, it is pretty much the same
They have each their
advantages, and I can be equally happy in either.”

“Ay, that is because you have the right disposition
But that
gentleman,” looking at Darcy, “seemed to think the country was nothing
at all.”

“Indeed, mamma, you are mistaken,” said Elizabeth, blushing for her
mother
I know we dine with four-and-twenty families.”

Nothing but concern for Elizabeth could enable Bingley to keep his
countenance
His sister was less delicate, and directed her eye towards
Mr
Darcy with a very expressive smile
Elizabeth, for the sake of
saying something that might turn her mother’s thoughts, now asked her if
Charlotte Lucas had been at Longbourn since _her_ coming away
“Yes, she called yesterday with her father
What an agreeable man Sir
William is, Mr
He has always something to say to everybody
I fancy she was wanted about the mince-pies
Bingley, _I_ always keep servants that can do their own
work; _my_ daughters are brought up differently
But everybody is to
judge for themselves, and the Lucases are a very good sort of girls, I
assure you
It is a pity they are not handsome
Not that _I_ think
Charlotte so _very_ plain; but then she is our particular friend.”

“She seems a very pleasant young woman,” said Bingley
“Oh dear, yes; but you must own she is very plain
Lady Lucas herself
has often said so, and envied me Jane’s beauty
I do not like to boast
of my own child; but to be sure, Jane--one does not often see anybody
better looking
I do not trust my own
partiality
When she was only fifteen there was a gentleman at my
brother Gardiner’s in town so much in love with her, that my
sister-in-law was sure he would make her an offer before we came away
Perhaps he thought her too young
However, he
wrote some verses on her, and very pretty they were.”

“And so ended his affection,” said Elizabeth, impatiently
“There has
been many a one, I fancy, overcome in the same way
I wonder who first
discovered the efficacy of poetry in driving away love!”

“I have been used to consider poetry as the _food_ of love,” said Darcy
“Of a fine, stout, healthy love it may
Everything nourishes what is
strong already
She longed to
speak, but could think of nothing to say; and after a short silence Mrs
Bennet began repeating her thanks to Mr
Bingley for his kindness to
Jane, with an apology for troubling him also with Lizzy
Bingley was
unaffectedly civil in his answer, and forced his younger sister to be
civil also, and say what the occasion required
She performed her part,
indeed, without much graciousness, but Mrs
Bennet was satisfied, and
soon afterwards ordered her carriage
Upon this signal, the youngest of
her daughters put herself forward
The two girls had been whispering to
each other during the whole visit; and the result of it was, that the
youngest should tax Mr
Bingley with having promised on his first coming
into the country to give a ball at Netherfield
Lydia was a stout, well-grown girl of fifteen, with a fine complexion
and good-humoured countenance; a favourite with her mother, whose
affection had brought her into public at an early age
She was
very equal, therefore, to address Mr
Bingley on the subject of the
ball, and abruptly reminded him of his promise; adding, that it would be
the most shameful thing in the world if he did not keep it
His answer
to this sudden attack was delightful to her mother’s ear
“I am perfectly ready, I assure you, to keep my engagement; and, when
your sister is recovered, you shall, if you please, name the very day of
the ball
But you would not wish to be dancing while she is ill?”

Lydia declared herself satisfied
“Oh yes--it would be much better to
wait till Jane was well; and by that time, most likely, Captain Carter
would be at Meryton again
And when you have given _your_ ball,” she
added, “I shall insist on their giving one also
I shall tell Colonel
Forster it will be quite a shame if he does not.”

Mrs
Bennet and her daughters then departed, and Elizabeth returned
instantly to Jane, leaving her own and her relations’ behaviour to the
remarks of the two ladies and Mr
Darcy; the latter of whom, however,
could not be prevailed on to join in their censure of _her_, in spite of
all Miss Bingley’s witticisms on _fine eyes_
[Illustration]

The day passed much as the day before had done
Hurst and Miss
Bingley had spent some hours of the morning with the invalid, who
continued, though slowly, to mend; and, in the evening, Elizabeth joined
their party in the drawing-room
The loo table, however, did not appear
Darcy was writing, and Miss Bingley, seated near him, was watching
the progress of his letter, and repeatedly calling off his attention by
messages to his sister
Bingley were at piquet, and
Mrs
Elizabeth took up some needlework, and was sufficiently amused in
attending to what passed between Darcy and his companion
“How delighted Miss Darcy will be to receive such a letter!”

He made no answer
“You write uncommonly fast.”

“You are mistaken
I write rather slowly.”

“How many letters you must have occasion to write in the course of a
year
I mend
pens remarkably well.”

“Thank you--but I always mend my own.”

“How can you contrive to write so even?”

He was silent
At
present I have not room to do them justice.”

“Oh, it is of no consequence
But do you
always write such charming long letters to her, Mr
He studies too much
for words of four syllables
Do not you, Darcy?”

“My style of writing is very different from yours.”

“Oh,” cried Miss Bingley, “Charles writes in the most careless way
imaginable
Bingley,” said Elizabeth, “must disarm reproof.”

“Nothing is more deceitful,” said Darcy, “than the appearance of
humility
The power of doing anything with
quickness is always much prized by the possessor, and often without any
attention to the imperfection of the performance
And yet, upon my honour, I
believed what I said of myself to be true, and I believe it at this
moment
Bingley did
not do justice to his own disposition
You have shown him off now much
more than he did himself.”

“I am exceedingly gratified,” said Bingley, “by your converting what my
friend says into a compliment on the sweetness of my temper
Darcy, to allow nothing for the influence of
friendship and affection
A regard for the requester would often make
one readily yield to a request, without waiting for arguments to reason
one into it
I am not particularly speaking of such a case as you have
supposed about Mr
We may as well wait, perhaps, till the
circumstance occurs, before we discuss the discretion of his behaviour
thereupon
I assure
you that if Darcy were not such a great tall fellow, in comparison with
myself, I should not pay him half so much deference
I declare I do not
know a more awful object than Darcy on particular occasions, and in
particular places; at his own house especially, and of a Sunday evening,
when he has nothing to do.”

Mr
Darcy smiled; but Elizabeth thought she could perceive that he was
rather offended, and therefore checked her laugh
Miss Bingley warmly
resented the indignity he had received, in an expostulation with her
brother for talking such nonsense
“I see your design, Bingley,” said his friend
“You dislike an argument,
and want to silence this.”

“Perhaps I do
Arguments are too much like disputes
Darcy had much better finish his letter.”

Mr
Darcy took her advice, and did finish his letter
When that business was over, he applied to Miss Bingley and Elizabeth
for the indulgence of some music
Miss Bingley moved with alacrity to
the pianoforte, and after a polite request that Elizabeth would lead the
way, which the other as politely and more earnestly negatived, she
seated herself
Hurst sang with her sister; and while they were thus employed,
Elizabeth could not help observing, as she turned over some music-books
that lay on the instrument, how frequently Mr
She hardly knew how to suppose that she could be an object of
admiration to so great a man, and yet that he should look at her because
he disliked her was still more strange
The supposition did not pain her
She liked
him too little to care for his approbation
After playing some Italian songs, Miss Bingley varied the charm by a
lively Scotch air; and soon afterwards Mr
Darcy, drawing near
Elizabeth, said to her,--

“Do you not feel a great inclination, Miss Bennet, to seize such an
opportunity of dancing a reel?”

She smiled, but made no answer
He repeated the question, with some
surprise at her silence
“Oh,” said she, “I heard you before; but I could not immediately
determine what to say in reply
He really
believed that, were it not for the inferiority of her connections, he
should be in some danger
Miss Bingley saw, or suspected, enough to be jealous; and her great
anxiety for the recovery of her dear friend Jane received some
assistance from her desire of getting rid of Elizabeth
She often tried to provoke Darcy into disliking her guest, by talking of
their supposed marriage, and planning his happiness in such an alliance
Do let the portraits of your uncle and aunt Philips be placed
in the gallery at Pemberley
Put them next to your great-uncle the
judge
They are in the same profession, you know, only in different
lines
“I did not know that you intended to walk,” said Miss Bingley, in some
confusion, lest they had been overheard
“You used us abominably ill,” answered Mrs
Hurst, “running away without
telling us that you were coming out.”

Then taking the disengaged arm of Mr
Darcy, she left Elizabeth to walk
by herself
Darcy felt their rudeness,
and immediately said,--

“This walk is not wide enough for our party
We had better go into the
avenue.”

But Elizabeth, who had not the least inclination to remain with them,
laughingly answered,--

“No, no; stay where you are
You are charmingly grouped, and appear to
uncommon advantage
The picturesque would be spoilt by admitting a
fourth
Good-bye.”

She then ran gaily off, rejoicing, as she rambled about, in the hope of
being at home again in a day or two
Jane was already so much recovered
as to intend leaving her room for a couple of hours that evening
[Illustration:

     “Piling up the fire”

[_Copyright 1894 by George Allen._]]




CHAPTER XI
Their powers
of conversation were considerable
They could describe an entertainment
with accuracy, relate an anecdote with humour, and laugh at their
acquaintance with spirit
But when the gentlemen entered, Jane was no longer the first object;
Miss Bingley’s eyes were instantly turned towards Darcy, and she had
something to say to him before he had advanced many steps
He addressed
himself directly to Miss Bennet with a polite congratulation; Mr
Hurst
also made her a slight bow, and said he was “very glad;” but diffuseness
and warmth remained for Bingley’s salutation
He was full of joy and
attention
He then sat down by her, and talked scarcely to anyone else
Elizabeth, at work in the opposite corner, saw it all with great
delight
Hurst reminded his sister-in-law of the
card-table--but in vain
She had obtained private intelligence that Mr
Darcy did not wish for cards, and Mr
Hurst soon found even his open
petition rejected
She assured him that no one intended to play, and the
silence of the whole party on the subject seemed to justify her
Hurst had, therefore, nothing to do but to stretch himself on one of the
sofas and go to sleep
Miss Bingley did the same;
and Mrs
Hurst, principally occupied in playing with her bracelets and
rings, joined now and then in her brother’s conversation with Miss
Bennet
Miss Bingley’s attention was quite as much engaged in watching Mr
Darcy’s progress through _his_ book, as in reading her own; and she was
perpetually either making some inquiry, or looking at his page
She
could not win him, however, to any conversation; he merely answered her
question and read on
I declare, after all, there is no
enjoyment like reading
How much sooner one tires of anything than of a
book
When I have a house of my own, I shall be miserable if I have not
an excellent library.”

No one made any reply
Her figure was elegant, and she walked well; but Darcy, at
whom it was all aimed, was still inflexibly studious
In the
desperation of her feelings, she resolved on one effort more; and,
turning to Elizabeth, said,--

“Miss Eliza Bennet, let me persuade you to follow my example, and take a
turn about the room
I assure you it is very refreshing after sitting so
long in one attitude.”

Elizabeth was surprised, but agreed to it immediately
Miss Bingley
succeeded no less in the real object of her civility: Mr
He was as much awake to the novelty of attention in that quarter as
Elizabeth herself could be, and unconsciously closed his book
She was dying to know what could be his
meaning--and asked Elizabeth whether she could at all understand him
Darcy in
anything, and persevered, therefore, in requiring an explanation of his
two motives
“I have not the smallest objection to explaining them,” said he, as soon
as she allowed him to speak
“I never heard anything so
abominable
How shall we punish him for such a speech?”

“Nothing so easy, if you have but the inclination,” said Elizabeth
“We
can all plague and punish one another
Intimate
as you are, you must know how it is to be done.”

“But upon my honour I do _not_
I do assure you that my intimacy has not
yet taught me _that_
Tease calmness of temper and presence of mind
No,
no; I feel he may defy us there
And as to laughter, we will not expose
ourselves, if you please, by attempting to laugh without a subject
Darcy is not to be laughed at!” cried Elizabeth
“That is an
uncommon advantage, and uncommon I hope it will continue, for it would
be a great loss to _me_ to have many such acquaintance
I dearly love a
laugh.”

“Miss Bingley,” said he, “has given me credit for more than can be
I hope I never ridicule what is wise or good
Follies
and nonsense, whims and inconsistencies, _do_ divert me, I own, and I
laugh at them whenever I can
But these, I suppose, are precisely what
you are without.”

“Perhaps that is not possible for anyone
But it has been the study of
my life to avoid those weaknesses which often expose a strong
understanding to ridicule.”

“Such as vanity and pride.”

“Yes, vanity is a weakness indeed
But pride--where there is a real
superiority of mind--pride will be always under good regulation.”

Elizabeth turned away to hide a smile
Darcy is over, I presume,” said Miss Bingley;
“and pray what is the result?”

“I am perfectly convinced by it that Mr
He owns it
himself without disguise.”

“No,” said Darcy, “I have made no such pretension
I have faults enough,
but they are not, I hope, of understanding
It is, I believe, too little yielding; certainly too little for the
convenience of the world
I cannot forget the follies and vices of
others so soon as I ought, nor their offences against myself
My
feelings are not puffed about with every attempt to move them
My temper
would perhaps be called resentful
My good opinion once lost is lost for
ever.”

“_That_ is a failing, indeed!” cried Elizabeth
“Implacable resentment
_is_ a shade in a character
But you have chosen your fault well
“Louisa, you will not mind my
waking Mr
Hurst.”

Her sister made not the smallest objection, and the pianoforte was
opened; and Darcy, after a few moments’ recollection, was not sorry for
it
He began to feel the danger of paying Elizabeth too much attention
[Illustration]

In consequence of an agreement between the sisters, Elizabeth wrote the
next morning to her mother, to beg that the carriage might be sent for
them in the course of the day
Bennet, who had calculated on
her daughters remaining at Netherfield till the following Tuesday, which
would exactly finish Jane’s week, could not bring herself to receive
them with pleasure before
Her answer, therefore, was not propitious, at
least not to Elizabeth’s wishes, for she was impatient to get home
Bennet sent them word that they could not possibly have the carriage
before Tuesday; and in her postscript it was added, that if Mr
Bingley
and his sister pressed them to stay longer, she could spare them very
well
Bingley’s carriage immediately, and at
length it was settled that their original design of leaving Netherfield
that morning should be mentioned, and the request made
The communication excited many professions of concern; and enough was
said of wishing them to stay at least till the following day to work on
Jane; and till the morrow their going was deferred
Miss Bingley was
then sorry that she had proposed the delay; for her jealousy and dislike
of one sister much exceeded her affection for the other
Darcy it was welcome intelligence: Elizabeth had been at
Netherfield long enough
She attracted him more than he liked; and Miss
Bingley was uncivil to _her_ and more teasing than usual to himself
On Sunday, after morning service, the separation, so agreeable to almost
all, took place
Elizabeth took leave of
the whole party in the liveliest spirits
They were not welcomed home very cordially by their mother
Bennet
wondered at their coming, and thought them very wrong to give so much
trouble, and was sure Jane would have caught cold again
But their
father, though very laconic in his expressions of pleasure, was really
glad to see them; he had felt their importance in the family circle
The
evening conversation, when they were all assembled, had lost much of its
animation, and almost all its sense, by the absence of Jane and
Elizabeth
They found Mary, as usual, deep in the study of thorough bass and human
nature; and had some new extracts to admire and some new observations of
threadbare morality to listen to
Catherine and Lydia had information
for them of a different sort
[Illustration]




CHAPTER XIII


[Illustration]

“I hope, my dear,” said Mr
I know of nobody that is coming, I am sure,
unless Charlotte Lucas should happen to call in; and I hope _my_ dinners
are good enough for her
I do not believe she often sees such at home.”

“The person of whom I speak is a gentleman and a stranger.”

Mrs
Why, Jane--you never dropped a word of this--you sly
thing
Well, I am sure I shall be extremely glad to see Mr
there is not a bit of fish to be got
to-day
I must speak to Hill this
moment.”

“It is _not_ Mr
Collins, who,
when I am dead, may turn you all out of this house as soon as he
pleases.”

“Oh, my dear,” cried his wife, “I cannot bear to hear that mentioned
Pray do not talk of that odious man
They had often attempted it before: but it was a subject on which Mrs
“It certainly is a most iniquitous affair,” said Mr
Bennet; “and
nothing can clear Mr
Collins from the guilt of inheriting Longbourn
Bennet, as he folded up the letter
“He must be an oddity, I think,” said she
There
is something very pompous in his style
And what can he mean by
apologizing for being next in the entail
We cannot suppose he would
help it, if he could
Can he be a sensible man, sir?”

“No, my dear; I think not
I have great hopes of finding him quite the
reverse
There is a mixture of servility and self-importance in his
letter which promises well
I am impatient to see him.”

“In point of composition,” said Mary, “his letter does not seem
defective
The idea of the olive branch perhaps is not wholly new, yet I
think it is well expressed.”

To Catherine and Lydia neither the letter nor its writer were in any
degree interesting
It was next to impossible that their cousin should
come in a scarlet coat, and it was now some weeks since they had
received pleasure from the society of a man in any other colour
Collins’s letter had done away much of her ill-will,
and she was preparing to see him with a degree of composure which
astonished her husband and daughters
Collins was punctual to his time, and was received with great
politeness by the whole family
Bennet indeed said little; but the
ladies were ready enough to talk, and Mr
Collins seemed neither in need
of encouragement, nor inclined to be silent himself
He was a tall,
heavy-looking young man of five-and-twenty
His air was grave and
stately, and his manners were very formal
He had not been long seated
before he complimented Mrs
This
gallantry was not much to the taste of some of his hearers; but Mrs
Bennet, who quarrelled with no compliments, answered most readily,--

“You are very kind, sir, I am sure; and I wish with all my heart it may
prove so; for else they will be destitute enough
Things are settled so
oddly.”

“You allude, perhaps, to the entail of this estate.”

“Ah, sir, I do indeed
It is a grievous affair to my poor girls, you
must confess
Not that I mean to find fault with _you_, for such things,
I know, are all chance in this world
But I can assure the young ladies that I come
prepared to admire them
At present I will not say more, but, perhaps,
when we are better acquainted----”

He was interrupted by a summons to dinner; and the girls smiled on each
other
They were not the only objects of Mr
The
hall, the dining-room, and all its furniture, were examined and praised;
and his commendation of everything would have touched Mrs
Bennet’s
heart, but for the mortifying supposition of his viewing it all as his
own future property
The dinner, too, in its turn, was highly admired;
and he begged to know to which of his fair cousins the excellence of its
cookery was owing
But here he was set right by Mrs
Bennet, who assured
him, with some asperity, that they were very well able to keep a good
cook, and that her daughters had nothing to do in the kitchen
He begged
pardon for having displeased her
In a softened tone she declared
herself not at all offended; but he continued to apologize for about a
quarter of an hour
[Illustration]




CHAPTER XIV


[Illustration]

During dinner, Mr
Lady
Catherine de Bourgh’s attention to his wishes, and consideration for his
comfort, appeared very remarkable
Bennet could not have chosen
better
Collins was eloquent in her praise
She had been graciously pleased to
approve of both the discourses which he had already had the honour of
preaching before her
She had also asked him twice to dine at Rosings,
and had sent for him only the Saturday before, to make up her pool of
quadrille in the evening
Lady Catherine was reckoned proud by many
people, he knew, but _he_ had never seen anything but affability in her
“That is all very proper and civil, I am sure,” said Mrs
Bennet, “and I
dare say she is a very agreeable woman
It is a pity that great ladies
in general are not more like her
Does she live near you, sir?”

“The garden in which stands my humble abode is separated only by a lane
from Rosings Park, her Ladyship’s residence.”

“I think you said she was a widow, sir
has she any family?”

“She has one only daughter, the heiress of Rosings, and of very
extensive property.”

“Ah,” cried Mrs
Bennet, shaking her head, “then she is better off than
many girls
And what sort of young lady is she
Is she handsome?”

“She is a most charming young lady, indeed
But she is perfectly amiable, and often condescends
to drive by my humble abode in her little phaeton and ponies.”

“Has she been presented
Her Ladyship seemed pleased
with the idea; and you may imagine that I am happy on every occasion to
offer those little delicate compliments which are always acceptable to
ladies
I have more than once observed to Lady Catherine, that her
charming daughter seemed born to be a duchess; and that the most
elevated rank, instead of giving her consequence, would be adorned by
her
These are the kind of little things which please her Ladyship, and
it is a sort of attention which I conceive myself peculiarly bound to
pay.”

“You judge very properly,” said Mr
Bennet; “and it is happy for you
that you possess the talent of flattering with delicacy
Bennet’s expectations were fully answered
By tea-time, however, the dose had been enough, and Mr
Kitty stared at him, and Lydia
exclaimed
and if he does, Colonel Forster will hire him
My aunt told me
so herself on Saturday
I shall walk to Meryton to-morrow to hear more
about it, and to ask when Mr
Denny comes back from town.”

Lydia was bid by her two eldest sisters to hold her tongue; but Mr
Collins, much offended, laid aside his book, and said,--

“I have often observed how little young ladies are interested by books
of a serious stamp, though written solely for their benefit
It amazes
me, I confess; for certainly there can be nothing so advantageous to
them as instruction
But I will no longer importune my young cousin.”

Then, turning to Mr
Bennet, he offered himself as his antagonist at
backgammon
Bennet accepted the challenge, observing that he acted
very wisely in leaving the girls to their own trifling amusements
Bennet and her daughters apologized most civilly for Lydia’s
interruption, and promised that it should not occur again, if he would
resume his book; but Mr
Collins, after assuring them that he bore his
young cousin no ill-will, and should never resent her behaviour as any
affront, seated himself at another table with Mr
Bennet, and prepared
for backgammon
His plan did not vary on seeing them
Miss Bennet’s lovely face
confirmed his views, and established all his strictest notions of what
was due to seniority; and for the first evening _she_ was his settled
choice
The next morning, however, made an alteration; for in a quarter
of an hour’s _tête-à-tête_ with Mrs
Collins had only to change from Jane to Elizabeth--and it was soon
done--done while Mrs
Elizabeth, equally
next to Jane in birth and beauty, succeeded her of course
Bennet treasured up the hint, and trusted that she might soon have
two daughters married; and the man whom she could not bear to speak of
the day before, was now high in her good graces
Lydia’s intention of walking to Meryton was not forgotten: every sister
except Mary agreed to go with her; and Mr
Collins was to attend them,
at the request of Mr
Bennet, who was most anxious to get rid of him,
and have his library to himself; for thither Mr
Collins had followed
him after breakfast, and there he would continue, nominally engaged with
one of the largest folios in the collection, but really talking to Mr
Bennet, with little cessation, of his house and garden at Hunsford
Collins to join his daughters in their
walk; and Mr
Collins, being in fact much better fitted for a walker
than a reader, was extremely well pleased to close his large book, and
go
In pompous nothings on his side, and civil assents on that of his
cousins, their time passed till they entered Meryton
The attention of
the younger ones was then no longer to be gained by _him_
Their eyes
were immediately wandering up the street in quest of the officers, and
nothing less than a very smart bonnet, indeed, or a really new muslin in
a shop window, could recall them
But the attention of every lady was soon caught by a young man, whom
they had never seen before, of most gentlemanlike appearance, walking
with an officer on the other side of the way
Denny concerning whose return from London Lydia came to inquire, and
he bowed as they passed
Denny addressed them directly, and entreated permission to
introduce his friend, Mr
Wickham, who had returned with him the day
before from town, and, he was happy to say, had accepted a commission in
their corps
This was exactly as it should be; for the young man wanted
only regimentals to make him completely charming
His appearance was
greatly in his favour: he had all the best parts of beauty, a fine
countenance, a good figure, and very pleasing address
On distinguishing the ladies of the group
the two gentlemen came directly towards them, and began the usual
civilities
Bingley was the principal spokesman, and Miss Bennet the
principal object
He was then, he said, on his way to Longbourn on
purpose to inquire after her
Both changed colour,
one looked white, the other red
Wickham, after a few moments,
touched his hat--a salutation which Mr
What could be the meaning of it
It was impossible to imagine; it was
impossible not to long to know
Bingley, but without seeming to have noticed what
passed, took leave and rode on with his friend
Wickham walked with the young ladies to the door of
Mr
Philips’s house, and then made their bows, in spite of Miss Lydia’s
pressing entreaties that they would come in, and even in spite of Mrs
Philips’s throwing up the parlour window, and loudly seconding the
invitation
Jones’s shopboy in the street, who had
told her that they were not to send any more draughts to Netherfield,
because the Miss Bennets were come away, when her civility was claimed
towards Mr
Collins by Jane’s introduction of him
Denny had
brought him from London, and that he was to have a lieutenant’s
commission in the ----shire
She had been watching him the last hour,
she said, as he walked up and down the street,--and had Mr
Wickham, and give him an invitation also, if the family from Longbourn
would come in the evening
Philips
protested that they would have a nice comfortable noisy game of lottery
tickets, and a little bit of hot supper afterwards
The prospect of such
delights was very cheering, and they parted in mutual good spirits
Collins repeated his apologies in quitting the room, and was assured,
with unwearying civility, that they were perfectly needless
Collins on his return highly gratified Mrs
Philips’s manners and politeness
Something, he supposed, might be
attributed to his connection with them, but yet he had never met with so
much attention in the whole course of his life
[Illustration]

As no objection was made to the young people’s engagement with their
aunt, and all Mr
Collins’s scruples of leaving Mr
Wickham had accepted their uncle’s invitation, and was then in
the house
When this information was given, and they had all taken their seats, Mr
Philips a very attentive
listener, whose opinion of his consequence increased with what she
heard, and who was resolving to retail it all among her neighbours as
soon as she could
The gentlemen did approach: and when Mr
Wickham walked into the room,
Elizabeth felt that she had neither been seeing him before, nor thinking
of him since, with the smallest degree of unreasonable admiration
[Illustration:

“The officers of the ----shire”

[_Copyright 1894 by George Allen._]]

Mr
With such rivals for the notice of the fair as Mr
Collins seemed to sink into insignificance; to the young
ladies he certainly was nothing; but he had still at intervals a kind
listener in Mrs
Philips, and was, by her watchfulness, most abundantly
supplied with coffee and muffin
When the card tables were placed, he had an opportunity of obliging her,
in return, by sitting down to whist
“I know little of the game at present,” said he, “but I shall be glad to
improve myself; for in my situation of life----” Mrs
Philips was very
thankful for his compliance, but could not wait for his reason
Wickham did not play at whist, and with ready delight was he
received at the other table between Elizabeth and Lydia
Allowing for the common demands of the game, Mr
She dared not even
mention that gentleman
Her curiosity, however, was unexpectedly
relieved
Wickham began the subject himself
He inquired how far
Netherfield was from Meryton; and, after receiving her answer, asked in
a hesitating manner how long Mr
“You may well be surprised, Miss Bennet, at such an assertion, after
seeing, as you probably might, the very cold manner of our meeting
yesterday
Are you much acquainted with Mr
Darcy?”

“As much as I ever wish to be,” cried Elizabeth, warmly
“I have spent
four days in the same house with him, and I think him very
disagreeable.”

“I have no right to give _my_ opinion,” said Wickham, “as to his being
agreeable or otherwise
I have known him
too long and too well to be a fair judge
It is impossible for _me_ to
be impartial
But I believe your opinion of him would in general
astonish--and, perhaps, you would not express it quite so strongly
anywhere else
Here you are in your own family.”

“Upon my word I say no more _here_ than I might say in any house in the
neighbourhood, except Netherfield
He is not at all liked in
Hertfordshire
Everybody is disgusted with his pride
I hope your plans in favour of the ----shire will
not be affected by his being in the neighbourhood.”

“Oh no--it is not for _me_ to be driven away by Mr
If _he_
wishes to avoid seeing _me_ he must go
His father, Miss Bennet, the late Mr
Darcy, was one of the best men
that ever breathed, and the truest friend I ever had; and I can never be
in company with this Mr
Darcy without being grieved to the soul by a
thousand tender recollections
“It was the prospect of constant society, and good society,” he added,
“which was my chief inducement to enter the ----shire
Society, I own, is necessary to me
I have been a disappointed man, and
my spirits will not bear solitude
I _must_ have employment and society
A military life is not what I was intended for, but circumstances have
now made it eligible
Darcy bequeathed me the next presentation of the best
living in his gift
He was my godfather, and excessively attached to me
I cannot do justice to his kindness
He meant to provide for me amply,
and thought he had done it; but when the living fell, it was given
elsewhere.”

“Good heavens!” cried Elizabeth; “but how could _that_ be
How could his
will be disregarded
Why did not you seek legal redress?”

“There was just such an informality in the terms of the bequest as to
give me no hope from law
A man of honour could not have doubted the
intention, but Mr
Darcy chose to doubt it--or to treat it as a merely
conditional recommendation, and to assert that I had forfeited all claim
to it by extravagance, imprudence, in short, anything or nothing
I have a warm unguarded temper, and I
may perhaps have sometimes spoken my opinion _of_ him, and _to_ him, too
freely
But the fact is, that we are very
different sort of men, and that he hates me.”

“This is quite shocking
He deserves to be publicly disgraced.”

“Some time or other he _will_ be--but it shall not be by _me_
Till I
can forget his father, I can never defy or expose _him_.”

Elizabeth honoured him for such feelings, and thought him handsomer than
ever as he expressed them
“But what,” said she, after a pause, “can have been his motive
what can
have induced him to behave so cruelly?”

“A thorough, determined dislike of me--a dislike which I cannot but
attribute in some measure to jealousy
Darcy liked me
less, his son might have borne with me better; but his father’s uncommon
attachment to me irritated him, I believe, very early in life
He had
not a temper to bear the sort of competition in which we stood--the sort
of preference which was often given me.”

“I had not thought Mr
_My_
father began life in the profession which your uncle, Mr
Philips,
appears to do so much credit to; but he gave up everything to be of use
to the late Mr
Darcy, and devoted all his time to the care of the
Pemberley property
He was most highly esteemed by Mr
Darcy, a most
intimate, confidential friend
Darcy often acknowledged himself to
be under the greatest obligations to my father’s active superintendence;
and when, immediately before my father’s death, Mr
Darcy gave him a
voluntary promise of providing for me, I am convinced that he felt it
to be as much a debt of gratitude to _him_ as of affection to myself.”

“How strange!” cried Elizabeth
I wonder that the very
pride of this Mr
Darcy has not made him just to you
It has
connected him nearer with virtue than any other feeling
Family pride, and _filial_ pride, for he is very proud of what his
father was, have done this
Not to appear to disgrace his family, to
degenerate from the popular qualities, or lose the influence of the
Pemberley House, is a powerful motive
“I wish I could call her amiable
It gives me pain to
speak ill of a Darcy; but she is too much like her brother,--very, very
proud
As a child, she was affectionate and pleasing, and extremely fond
of me; and I have devoted hours and hours to her amusement
She is a handsome girl, about fifteen or sixteen,
and, I understand, highly accomplished
Bingley,
who seems good-humour itself, and is, I really believe, truly amiable,
be in friendship with such a man
Bingley?”

“Not at all.”

“He is a sweet-tempered, amiable, charming man
Darcy is.”

“Probably not; but Mr
Darcy can please where he chooses
He can be a conversible companion if he thinks it worth
his while
Among those who are at all his equals in consequence, he is a
very different man from what he is to the less prosperous
Collins took his station between his cousin
Elizabeth and Mrs
The usual inquiries as to his success were
made by the latter
It had not been very great; he had lost every point;
but when Mrs
There
are, undoubtedly, many who could not say the same; but, thanks to Lady
Catherine de Bourgh, I am removed far beyond the necessity of regarding
little matters.”

Mr
Wickham’s attention was caught; and after observing Mr
Collins for
a few moments, he asked Elizabeth in a low voice whether her relations
were very intimately acquainted with the family of De Bourgh
“Lady Catherine de Bourgh,” she replied, “has very lately given him a
living
Darcy.”

“No, indeed, I did not
I knew nothing at all of Lady Catherine’s
connections
Vain indeed must be all her attentions, vain and useless her
affection for his sister and her praise of himself, if he were already
self-destined to another
There could be no conversation in the noise of
Mrs
Philips’s supper party, but his manners recommended him to
everybody
Whatever he said, was said well; and whatever he did, done
gracefully
Elizabeth went away with her head full of him
She could
think of nothing but of Mr
Wickham, and of what he had told her, all
the way home; but there was not time for her even to mention his name as
they went, for neither Lydia nor Mr
Lydia
talked incessantly of lottery tickets, of the fish she had lost and the
fish she had won; and Mr
Collins, in describing the civility of Mr
[Illustration:

     “delighted to see their dear friend again”
]




CHAPTER XVII
[Illustration]

Elizabeth related to Jane, the next day, what had passed between Mr
Jane listened with astonishment and concern: she
knew not how to believe that Mr
Darcy could be so unworthy of Mr
Bingley’s regard; and yet it was not in her nature to question the
veracity of a young man of such amiable appearance as Wickham
“They have both,” said she, “been deceived, I dare say, in some way or
other, of which we can form no idea
Interested people have perhaps
misrepresented each to the other
Do clear _them_, too, or we shall be obliged to think ill of
somebody.”

“Laugh as much as you choose, but you will not laugh me out of my
opinion
My dearest Lizzy, do but consider in what a disgraceful light
it places Mr
Darcy, to be treating his father’s favourite in such a
manner,--one whom his father had promised to provide for
No man of common humanity, no man who had any value for his
character, could be capable of it
Can his most intimate friends be so
excessively deceived in him
Oh no.”

“I can much more easily believe Mr
Bingley’s being imposed on than that
Mr
Wickham should invent such a history of himself as he gave me last
night; names, facts, everything mentioned without ceremony
Besides, there was truth in his looks.”

“It is difficult, indeed--it is distressing
One does not know what to
think.”

“I beg your pardon;--one knows exactly what to think.”

But Jane could think with certainty on only one point,--that Mr
Bingley, if he _had been_ imposed on, would have much to suffer when
the affair became public
The two young ladies were summoned from the shrubbery, where this
conversation passed, by the arrival of some of the very persons of whom
they had been speaking; Mr
Bingley and his sisters came to give their
personal invitation for the long expected ball at Netherfield, which was
fixed for the following Tuesday
The two ladies were delighted to see
their dear friend again, called it an age since they had met, and
repeatedly asked what she had been doing with herself since their
separation
To the rest of the family they paid little attention;
avoiding Mrs
Bennet as much as possible, saying not much to Elizabeth,
and nothing at all to the others
They were soon gone again, rising from
their seats with an activity which took their brother by surprise, and
hurrying off as if eager to escape from Mrs
The prospect of the Netherfield ball was extremely agreeable to every
female of the family
Bennet chose to consider it as given in
compliment to her eldest daughter, and was particularly flattered by
receiving the invitation from Mr
Bingley himself, instead of a
ceremonious card
Jane pictured to herself a happy evening in the
society of her two friends, and the attentions of their brother; and
Elizabeth thought with pleasure of dancing a great deal with Mr
Wickham, and of seeing a confirmation of everything in Mr
The happiness anticipated by Catherine and Lydia depended
less on any single event, or any particular person; for though they
each, like Elizabeth, meant to dance half the evening with Mr
Wickham,
he was by no means the only partner who could satisfy them, and a ball
was, at any rate, a ball
And even Mary could assure her family that she
had no disinclination for it
“While I can have my mornings to myself,” said she, “it is enough
I
think it is no sacrifice to join occasionally in evening engagements
Collins, she could not help asking
him whether he intended to accept Mr
She had fully proposed being
engaged by Wickham for those very dances; and to have Mr
Collins
instead!--her liveliness had been never worse timed
There was no help
for it, however
Wickham’s happiness and her own was perforce
delayed a little longer, and Mr
Collins’s proposal accepted with as
good a grace as she could
She was not the better pleased with his
gallantry, from the idea it suggested of something more
Elizabeth, however, did not choose
to take the hint, being well aware that a serious dispute must be the
consequence of any reply
Collins might never make the offer, and,
till he did, it was useless to quarrel about him
No
aunt, no officers, no news could be sought after; the very shoe-roses
for Netherfield were got by proxy
Even Elizabeth might have found some
trial of her patience in weather which totally suspended the improvement
of her acquaintance with Mr
Wickham; and nothing less than a dance on
Tuesday could have made such a Friday, Saturday, Sunday, and Monday
endurable to Kitty and Lydia
[Illustration]




CHAPTER XVIII
[Illustration]

Till Elizabeth entered the drawing-room at Netherfield, and looked in
vain for Mr
Wickham among the cluster of red coats there assembled, a
doubt of his being present had never occurred to her
The certainty of
meeting him had not been checked by any of those recollections that
might not unreasonably have alarmed her
But in an instant arose the
dreadful suspicion of his being purposely omitted, for Mr
Darcy’s
pleasure, in the Bingleys’ invitation to the officers; and though this
was not exactly the case, the absolute fact of his absence was
pronounced by his friend Mr
Attention, forbearance, patience with Darcy, was injury to Wickham
She
was resolved against any sort of conversation with him, and turned away
with a degree of ill-humour which she could not wholly surmount even in
speaking to Mr
Bingley, whose blind partiality provoked her
The two first dances, however, brought a return of
distress: they were dances of mortification
The moment of her
release from him was ecstasy
She danced next with an officer, and had the refreshment of talking of
Wickham, and of hearing that he was universally liked
When those dances
were over, she returned to Charlotte Lucas, and was in conversation with
her, when she found herself suddenly addressed by Mr
Darcy, who took
her so much by surprise in his application for her hand, that, without
knowing what she did, she accepted him
He walked away again
immediately, and she was left to fret over her own want of presence of
mind: Charlotte tried to console her
“I dare say you will find him very agreeable.”

“Heaven forbid
_That_ would be the greatest misfortune of all
To find
a man agreeable whom one is determined to hate
Elizabeth made no
answer, and took her place in the set, amazed at the dignity to which
she was arrived in being allowed to stand opposite to Mr
Darcy, and
reading in her neighbours’ looks their equal amazement in beholding it
He replied, and was again
silent
After a pause of some minutes, she addressed him a second time,
with--

“It is _your_ turn to say something now, Mr
“Very well; that reply will do for the present
Perhaps, by-and-by, I
may observe that private balls are much pleasanter than public ones; but
_now_ we may be silent.”

“Do you talk by rule, then, while you are dancing?”

“Sometimes
One must speak a little, you know
“How near it may be to _mine_, I cannot pretend to say
She answered in the affirmative; and, unable to resist
the temptation, added, “When you met us there the other day, we had just
been forming a new acquaintance.”

The effect was immediate
A deeper shade of _hauteur_ overspread his
features, but he said not a word; and Elizabeth, though blaming herself
for her own weakness, could not go on
At length Darcy spoke, and in a
constrained manner said,--

“Mr
At
that moment Sir William Lucas appeared close to them, meaning to pass
through the set to the other side of the room; but, on perceiving Mr
Darcy, he stopped, with a bow of superior courtesy, to compliment him on
his dancing and his partner
“I have been most highly gratified, indeed, my dear sir; such very
superior dancing is not often seen
It is evident that you belong to the
first circles
What congratulations will
then flow in
Darcy;--but let me not interrupt you, sir
Recovering himself, however, shortly,
he turned to his partner, and said,--

“Sir William’s interruption has made me forget what we were talking
of.”

“I do not think we were speaking at all
Sir William could not have
interrupted any two people in the room who had less to say for
themselves
We have tried two or three subjects already without success,
and what we are to talk of next I cannot imagine.”

“What think you of books?” said he, smiling
“Books--oh no!--I am sure we never read the same, or not with the same
feelings.”

“I am sorry you think so; but if that be the case, there can at least be
no want of subject
Darcy,
that you hardly ever forgave;--that your resentment, once created, was
unappeasable
You are very cautious, I suppose, as to its _being
created_?”

“I am,” said he, with a firm voice
“I am trying to make it out.”

“And what is your success?”

She shook her head
They had not long separated when Miss Bingley came towards her, and,
with an expression of civil disdain, thus accosted her,--

“So, Miss Eliza, I hear you are quite delighted with George Wickham
Let me recommend you, however, as a friend, not to give
implicit confidence to all his assertions; for, as to Mr
Darcy’s using
him ill, it is perfectly false: for, on the contrary, he has been always
remarkably kind to him, though George Wickham has treated Mr
Darcy in a
most infamous manner
I do not know the particulars, but I know very
well that Mr
His coming into the country at all is a most insolent thing, indeed, and
I wonder how he could presume to do it
Darcy’s steward, and of _that_, I can
assure you, he informed me himself.”

“I beg your pardon,” replied Miss Bingley, turning away with a sneer
“Excuse my interference; it was kindly meant.”

“Insolent girl!” said Elizabeth to herself
“You are much mistaken if
you expect to influence me by such a paltry attack as this
I see
nothing in it but your own wilful ignorance and the malice of Mr
Darcy.” She then sought her eldest sister, who had undertaken to make
inquiries on the same subject of Bingley
Jane met her with a smile of
such sweet complacency, a glow of such happy expression, as sufficiently
marked how well she was satisfied with the occurrences of the evening
“I want to know,” said she, with a countenance no less smiling than her
sister’s, “what you have learnt about Mr
Bingley does not know the whole of his
history, and is quite ignorant of the circumstances which have
principally offended Mr
Darcy; but he will vouch for the good conduct,
the probity and honour, of his friend, and is perfectly convinced that
Mr
Wickham has deserved much less attention from Mr
Darcy than he has
received; and I am sorry to say that by his account, as well as his
sister’s, Mr
Wickham is by no means a respectable young man
I am
afraid he has been very imprudent, and has deserved to lose Mr
Wickham himself.”

“No; he never saw him till the other morning at Meryton.”

“This account then is what he has received from Mr
But what does he say of the living?”

“He does not exactly recollect the circumstances, though he has heard
them from Mr
Darcy more than once, but he believes that it was left to
him _conditionally_ only.”

“I have not a doubt of Mr
Bingley’s sincerity,” said Elizabeth warmly,
“but you must excuse my not being convinced by assurances only
Elizabeth listened with
delight to the happy though modest hopes which Jane entertained of
Bingley’s regard, and said all in her power to heighten her confidence
in it
Bingley himself, Elizabeth withdrew
to Miss Lucas; to whose inquiry after the pleasantness of her last
partner she had scarcely replied, before Mr
Collins came up to them,
and told her with great exultation, that he had just been so fortunate
as to make a most important discovery
OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ADVENTURES OF SHERLOCK
HOLMES ***




The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes

by Arthur Conan Doyle


Contents

   I
The Boscombe Valley Mystery
   V
The Man with the Twisted Lip
   VII
The Adventure of the Blue Carbuncle
   VIII
The Adventure of the Speckled Band
   IX
The Adventure of the Engineer’s Thumb
   X
The Adventure of the Noble Bachelor
   XI
The Adventure of the Beryl Coronet
   XII
The Adventure of the Copper Beeches




I
To Sherlock Holmes she is always _the_ woman
I have seldom heard him
mention her under any other name
In his eyes she eclipses and
predominates the whole of her sex
It was not that he felt any emotion
akin to love for Irene Adler
All emotions, and that one particularly,
were abhorrent to his cold, precise but admirably balanced mind
He
was, I take it, the most perfect reasoning and observing machine that
the world has seen, but as a lover he would have placed himself in a
false position
He never spoke of the softer passions, save with a gibe
and a sneer
They were admirable things for the observer—excellent for
drawing the veil from men’s motives and actions
But for the trained
reasoner to admit such intrusions into his own delicate and finely
adjusted temperament was to introduce a distracting factor which might
throw a doubt upon all his mental results
Grit in a sensitive
instrument, or a crack in one of his own high-power lenses, would not
be more disturbing than a strong emotion in a nature such as his
And
yet there was but one woman to him, and that woman was the late Irene
Adler, of dubious and questionable memory
I had seen little of Holmes lately
My marriage had drifted us away
from each other
Beyond these signs of
his activity, however, which I merely shared with all the readers of
the daily press, I knew little of my former friend and companion
One night—it was on the twentieth of March, 1888—I was returning from a
journey to a patient (for I had now returned to civil practice), when
my way led me through Baker Street
His rooms were brilliantly lit, and, even as I
looked up, I saw his tall, spare figure pass twice in a dark silhouette
against the blind
He was pacing the room swiftly, eagerly, with his
head sunk upon his chest and his hands clasped behind him
To me, who
knew his every mood and habit, his attitude and manner told their own
story
He had risen out of his drug-created
dreams and was hot upon the scent of some new problem
I rang the bell
and was shown up to the chamber which had formerly been in part my own
It seldom was; but he was glad, I think,
to see me
With hardly a word spoken, but with a kindly eye, he waved
me to an armchair, threw across his case of cigars, and indicated a
spirit case and a gasogene in the corner
Then he stood before the fire
and looked me over in his singular introspective fashion
“Wedlock suits you,” he remarked
“I think, Watson, that you have put
on seven and a half pounds since I saw you.”

“Seven!” I answered
“Indeed, I should have thought a little more
Just a trifle more, I
fancy, Watson
And in practice again, I observe
You did not tell me
that you intended to go into harness.”

“Then, how do you know?”

“I see it, I deduce it
How do I know that you have been getting
yourself very wet lately, and that you have a most clumsy and careless
servant girl?”

“My dear Holmes,” said I, “this is too much
You would certainly have
been burned, had you lived a few centuries ago
It is true that I had a
country walk on Thursday and came home in a dreadful mess, but as I
have changed my clothes I can’t imagine how you deduce it
As to Mary
Jane, she is incorrigible, and my wife has given her notice, but there,
again, I fail to see how you work it out.”

He chuckled to himself and rubbed his long, nervous hands together
“It is simplicity itself,” said he; “my eyes tell me that on the inside
of your left shoe, just where the firelight strikes it, the leather is
scored by six almost parallel cuts
Obviously they have been caused by
someone who has very carelessly scraped round the edges of the sole in
order to remove crusted mud from it
Hence, you see, my double
deduction that you had been out in vile weather, and that you had a
particularly malignant boot-slitting specimen of the London slavey
And yet I
believe that my eyes are as good as yours.”

“Quite so,” he answered, lighting a cigarette, and throwing himself
down into an armchair
“You see, but you do not observe
For example, you have frequently seen the steps
which lead up from the hall to this room.”

“Frequently.”

“How often?”

“Well, some hundreds of times.”

“Then how many are there?”

“How many
Now, I know that there are seventeen steps, because I have
both seen and observed
“It came by the last post,” said he
“Read it aloud.”

The note was undated, and without either signature or address
“There will call upon you to-night, at a quarter to eight o’clock,” it
said, “a gentleman who desires to consult you upon a matter of the very
deepest moment
Your recent services to one of the royal houses of
Europe have shown that you are one who may safely be trusted with
matters which are of an importance which can hardly be exaggerated
This account of you we have from all quarters received
Be in your
chamber then at that hour, and do not take it amiss if your visitor
wear a mask.”

“This is indeed a mystery,” I remarked
“What do you imagine that it
means?”

“I have no data yet
It is a capital mistake to theorise before one has
data
Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of
theories to suit facts
What do you deduce from
it?”

I carefully examined the writing, and the paper upon which it was
written
“The man who wrote it was presumably well to do,” I remarked,
endeavouring to imitate my companion’s processes
“Such paper could not
be bought under half a crown a packet
It is peculiarly strong and
stiff.”

“Peculiar—that is the very word,” said Holmes
“It is not an English
paper at all
Hold it up to the light.”

I did so, and saw a large “E” with a small “g,” a “P,” and a large “G”
with a small “t” woven into the texture of the paper
“What do you make of that?” asked Holmes
“The name of the maker, no doubt; or his monogram, rather.”

“Not at all
“Eglow, Eglonitz—here we are, Egria
It is in a
German-speaking country—in Bohemia, not far from Carlsbad
“The paper was made in Bohemia,” I said
And the man who wrote the note is a German
Do you note the
peculiar construction of the sentence—‘This account of you we have from
all quarters received.’ A Frenchman or Russian could not have written
that
It is the German who is so uncourteous to his verbs
It only
remains, therefore, to discover what is wanted by this German who
writes upon Bohemian paper and prefers wearing a mask to showing his
face
And here he comes, if I am not mistaken, to resolve all our
doubts.”

As he spoke there was the sharp sound of horses’ hoofs and grating
wheels against the curb, followed by a sharp pull at the bell
“A pair, by the sound,” said he
“Yes,” he continued, glancing out of
the window
“A nice little brougham and a pair of beauties
A hundred
and fifty guineas apiece
There’s money in this case, Watson, if there
is nothing else.”

“I think that I had better go, Holmes.”

“Not a bit, Doctor
And this promises to be interesting
It would be a pity to miss it.”

“But your client—”

“Never mind him
I may want your help, and so may he
Sit down in that armchair, Doctor, and give us your best attention.”

A slow and heavy step, which had been heard upon the stairs and in the
passage, paused immediately outside the door
Then there was a loud and
authoritative tap
A man entered who could hardly have been less than six feet six inches
in height, with the chest and limbs of a Hercules
His dress was rich
with a richness which would, in England, be looked upon as akin to bad
taste
Boots which extended halfway up his calves, and which were
trimmed at the tops with rich brown fur, completed the impression of
barbaric opulence which was suggested by his whole appearance
From the lower part of the face
he appeared to be a man of strong character, with a thick, hanging lip,
and a long, straight chin suggestive of resolution pushed to the length
of obstinacy
“You had my note?” he asked with a deep harsh voice and a strongly
marked German accent
“I told you that I would call.” He looked from
one to the other of us, as if uncertain which to address
“Pray take a seat,” said Holmes
“This is my friend and colleague, Dr
Watson, who is occasionally good enough to help me in my cases
Whom
have I the honour to address?”

“You may address me as the Count Von Kramm, a Bohemian nobleman
I
understand that this gentleman, your friend, is a man of honour and
discretion, whom I may trust with a matter of the most extreme
importance
If not, I should much prefer to communicate with you
alone.”

I rose to go, but Holmes caught me by the wrist and pushed me back into
my chair
“You may say before this
gentleman anything which you may say to me.”

The Count shrugged his broad shoulders
“Then I must begin,” said he,
“by binding you both to absolute secrecy for two years; at the end of
that time the matter will be of no importance
At present it is not too
much to say that it is of such weight it may have an influence upon
European history.”

“I promise,” said Holmes
“And I.”

“You will excuse this mask,” continued our strange visitor
“The circumstances are of great delicacy, and every precaution has to
be taken to quench what might grow to be an immense scandal and
seriously compromise one of the reigning families of Europe
Our visitor glanced with some apparent surprise at the languid,
lounging figure of the man who had been no doubt depicted to him as the
most incisive reasoner and most energetic agent in Europe
Holmes
slowly reopened his eyes and looked impatiently at his gigantic client
“If your Majesty would condescend to state your case,” he remarked, “I
should be better able to advise you.”

The man sprang from his chair and paced up and down the room in
uncontrollable agitation
Then, with a gesture of desperation, he tore
the mask from his face and hurled it upon the ground
“You are right,”
he cried; “I am the King
Why should I attempt to conceal it?”

“Why, indeed?” murmured Holmes
Yet the matter was so delicate that I could not confide it to
an agent without putting myself in his power
I have come _incognito_
from Prague for the purpose of consulting you.”

“Then, pray consult,” said Holmes, shutting his eyes once more
“The facts are briefly these: Some five years ago, during a lengthy
visit to Warsaw, I made the acquaintance of the well-known adventuress,
Irene Adler
The name is no doubt familiar to you.”

“Kindly look her up in my index, Doctor,” murmured Holmes without
opening his eyes
For many years he had adopted a system of docketing
all paragraphs concerning men and things, so that it was difficult to
name a subject or a person on which he could not at once furnish
information
In this case I found her biography sandwiched in between
that of a Hebrew rabbi and that of a staff-commander who had written a
monograph upon the deep-sea fishes
Born in New Jersey in the year 1858
Prima donna Imperial Opera of Warsaw—yes
Your
Majesty, as I understand, became entangled with this young person,
wrote her some compromising letters, and is now desirous of getting
those letters back.”

“Precisely so
But how—”

“Was there a secret marriage?”

“None.”

“No legal papers or certificates?”

“None.”

“Then I fail to follow your Majesty
If this young person should
produce her letters for blackmailing or other purposes, how is she to
prove their authenticity?”

“There is the writing.”

“Pooh, pooh
Forgery.”

“My private note-paper.”

“Stolen.”

“My own seal.”

“Imitated.”

“My photograph.”

“Bought.”

“We were both in the photograph.”

“Oh, dear
Your Majesty has indeed committed an
indiscretion.”

“I was mad—insane.”

“You have compromised yourself seriously.”

“I was only Crown Prince then
I am but thirty now.”

“It must be recovered.”

“We have tried and failed.”

“Your Majesty must pay
It must be bought.”

“She will not sell.”

“Stolen, then.”

“Five attempts have been made
Twice burglars in my pay ransacked her
house
Once we diverted her luggage when she travelled
There has been no result.”

“No sign of it?”

“Absolutely none.”

Holmes laughed
“It is quite a pretty little problem,” said he
“But a very serious one to me,” returned the King reproachfully
You may know the strict principles of her family
She is
herself the very soul of delicacy
A shadow of a doubt as to my conduct
would bring the matter to an end.”

“And Irene Adler?”

“Threatens to send them the photograph
You do not know her, but she has a soul of steel
She
has the face of the most beautiful of women, and the mind of the most
resolute of men
That will be next Monday.”

“Oh, then we have three days yet,” said Holmes with a yawn
“That is
very fortunate, as I have one or two matters of importance to look into
just at present
Your Majesty will, of course, stay in London for the
present?”

“Certainly
You will find me at the Langham under the name of the Count
Von Kramm.”

“Then I shall drop you a line to let you know how we progress.”

“Pray do so
“There are three hundred pounds in gold and seven hundred in notes,” he
said
Holmes scribbled a receipt upon a sheet of his note-book and handed it
to him
“And Mademoiselle’s address?” he asked
“Is Briony Lodge, Serpentine Avenue, St
John’s Wood.”

Holmes took a note of it
“Was the
photograph a cabinet?”

“It was.”

“Then, good-night, your Majesty, and I trust that we shall soon have
some good news for you
And good-night, Watson,” he added, as the
wheels of the royal brougham rolled down the street
“If you will be
good enough to call to-morrow afternoon at three o’clock I should like
to chat this little matter over with you.”


II
At three o’clock precisely I was at Baker Street, but Holmes had not
yet returned
The landlady informed me that he had left the house
shortly after eight o’clock in the morning
I sat down beside the fire,
however, with the intention of awaiting him, however long he might be
So accustomed was I to his invariable success that the very
possibility of his failing had ceased to enter into my head
It was close upon four before the door opened, and a drunken-looking
groom, ill-kempt and side-whiskered, with an inflamed face and
disreputable clothes, walked into the room
Accustomed as I was to my
friend’s amazing powers in the use of disguises, I had to look three
times before I was certain that it was indeed he
With a nod he
vanished into the bedroom, whence he emerged in five minutes
tweed-suited and respectable, as of old
Putting his hands into his
pockets, he stretched out his legs in front of the fire and laughed
heartily for some minutes
“Well, really!” he cried, and then he choked and laughed again until he
was obliged to lie back, limp and helpless, in the chair
“What is it?”

“It’s quite too funny
I am sure you could never guess how I employed
my morning, or what I ended by doing.”

“I can’t imagine
I suppose that you have been watching the habits, and
perhaps the house, of Miss Irene Adler.”

“Quite so; but the sequel was rather unusual
I left the house a little after eight o’clock this morning in the
character of a groom out of work
There is a wonderful sympathy and
freemasonry among horsey men
Be one of them, and you will know all
that there is to know
It is a _bijou_
villa, with a garden at the back, but built out in front right up to
the road, two stories
Large sitting-room on
the right side, well furnished, with long windows almost to the floor,
and those preposterous English window fasteners which a child could
open
Behind there was nothing remarkable, save that the passage window
could be reached from the top of the coach-house
I walked round it and
examined it closely from every point of view, but without noting
anything else of interest
“I then lounged down the street and found, as I expected, that there
was a mews in a lane which runs down by one wall of the garden
“Oh, she has turned all the men’s heads down in that part
She is the
daintiest thing under a bonnet on this planet
So say the
Serpentine-mews, to a man
She lives quietly, sings at concerts, drives
out at five every day, and returns at seven sharp for dinner
Seldom
goes out at other times, except when she sings
Has only one male
visitor, but a good deal of him
He is dark, handsome, and dashing,
never calls less than once a day, and often twice
Godfrey
Norton, of the Inner Temple
See the advantages of a cabman as a
confidant
They had driven him home a dozen times from Serpentine-mews,
and knew all about him
When I had listened to all they had to tell, I
began to walk up and down near Briony Lodge once more, and to think
over my plan of campaign
“This Godfrey Norton was evidently an important factor in the matter
What was the relation between
them, and what the object of his repeated visits
Was she his client,
his friend, or his mistress
If the former, she had probably
transferred the photograph to his keeping
If the latter, it was less
likely
On the issue of this question depended whether I should
continue my work at Briony Lodge, or turn my attention to the
gentleman’s chambers in the Temple
It was a delicate point, and it
widened the field of my inquiry
I fear that I bore you with these
details, but I have to let you see my little difficulties, if you are
to understand the situation.”

“I am following you closely,” I answered
“I was still balancing the matter in my mind when a hansom cab drove up
to Briony Lodge, and a gentleman sprang out
He was a remarkably
handsome man, dark, aquiline, and moustached—evidently the man of whom
I had heard
He appeared to be in a great hurry, shouted to the cabman
to wait, and brushed past the maid who opened the door with the air of
a man who was thoroughly at home
“He was in the house about half an hour, and I could catch glimpses of
him in the windows of the sitting-room, pacing up and down, talking
excitedly, and waving his arms
Presently
he emerged, looking even more flurried than before
It hadn’t
pulled up before she shot out of the hall door and into it
I only
caught a glimpse of her at the moment, but she was a lovely woman, with
a face that a man might die for
Monica, John,’ she cried, ‘and half a sovereign if
you reach it in twenty minutes.’

“This was quite too good to lose, Watson
I was just balancing whether
I should run for it, or whether I should perch behind her landau when a
cab came through the street
The driver looked twice at such a shabby
fare, but I jumped in before he could object
Monica,’ said I, ‘and half a sovereign if you reach it in twenty
minutes.’ It was twenty-five minutes to twelve, and of course it was
clear enough what was in the wind
I don’t think I ever drove faster, but the others
were there before us
The cab and the landau with their steaming horses
were in front of the door when I arrived
I paid the man and hurried
into the church
There was not a soul there save the two whom I had
followed and a surpliced clergyman, who seemed to be expostulating with
them
They were all three standing in a knot in front of the altar
I
lounged up the side aisle like any other idler who has dropped into a
church
Suddenly, to my surprise, the three at the altar faced round to
me, and Godfrey Norton came running as hard as he could towards me
It was all done in an instant, and there was the gentleman
thanking me on the one side and the lady on the other, while the
clergyman beamed on me in front
It was the most preposterous position
in which I ever found myself in my life, and it was the thought of it
that started me laughing just now
It looked as if the
pair might take an immediate departure, and so necessitate very prompt
and energetic measures on my part
At the church door, however, they
separated, he driving back to the Temple, and she to her own house
‘I
shall drive out in the park at five as usual,’ she said as she left
him
They drove away in different directions, and I
went off to make my own arrangements.”

“Which are?”

“Some cold beef and a glass of beer,” he answered, ringing the bell
“I
have been too busy to think of food, and I am likely to be busier still
this evening
Turner has brought in the tray I will make it clear to you
Now,” he said as he turned hungrily on the simple fare that our
landlady had provided, “I must discuss it while I eat, for I have not
much time
In two hours we must be on the scene
of action
Miss Irene, or Madame, rather, returns from her drive at
seven
We must be at Briony Lodge to meet her.”

“And what then?”

“You must leave that to me
I have already arranged what is to occur
There is only one point on which I must insist
You must not interfere,
come what may
You understand?”

“I am to be neutral?”

“To do nothing whatever
There will probably be some small
unpleasantness
It will end in my being conveyed
into the house
Four or five minutes afterwards the sitting-room window
will open
You
quite follow me?”

“Entirely.”

“It is nothing very formidable,” he said, taking a long cigar-shaped
roll from his pocket
“It is an ordinary plumber’s smoke-rocket, fitted
with a cap at either end to make it self-lighting
When you raise your cry of fire, it will be taken up
by quite a number of people
You may then walk to the end of the
street, and I will rejoin you in ten minutes
His
broad black hat, his baggy trousers, his white tie, his sympathetic
smile, and general look of peering and benevolent curiosity were such
as Mr
John Hare alone could have equalled
It was not merely that
Holmes changed his costume
His expression, his manner, his very soul
seemed to vary with every fresh part that he assumed
The stage lost a
fine actor, even as science lost an acute reasoner, when he became a
specialist in crime
It was a quarter past six when we left Baker Street, and it still
wanted ten minutes to the hour when we found ourselves in Serpentine
Avenue
It was already dusk, and the lamps were just being lighted as
we paced up and down in front of Briony Lodge, waiting for the coming
of its occupant
The house was just such as I had pictured it from
Sherlock Holmes’ succinct description, but the locality appeared to be
less private than I expected
On the contrary, for a small street in a
quiet neighbourhood, it was remarkably animated
“You see,” remarked Holmes, as we paced to and fro in front of the
house, “this marriage rather simplifies matters
The photograph becomes
a double-edged weapon now
The chances are that she would be as averse
to its being seen by Mr
Godfrey Norton, as our client is to its coming
to the eyes of his princess
Now the question is, Where are we to find
the photograph?”

“Where, indeed?”

“It is most unlikely that she carries it about with her
Too large for easy concealment about a woman’s dress
She knows
that the King is capable of having her waylaid and searched
Two
attempts of the sort have already been made
We may take it, then, that
she does not carry it about with her.”

“Where, then?”

“Her banker or her lawyer
There is that double possibility
But I am
inclined to think neither
Women are naturally secretive, and they like
to do their own secreting
Why should she hand it over to anyone else
She could trust her own guardianship, but she could not tell what
indirect or political influence might be brought to bear upon a
business man
Besides, remember that she had resolved to use it within
a few days
It must be where she can lay her hands upon it
It must be
in her own house.”

“But it has twice been burgled.”

“Pshaw
They did not know how to look.”

“But how will you look?”

“I will not look.”

“What then?”

“I will get her to show me.”

“But she will refuse.”

“She will not be able to
But I hear the rumble of wheels
Now carry out my orders to the letter.”

As he spoke the gleam of the sidelights of a carriage came round the
curve of the avenue
It was a smart little landau which rattled up to
the door of Briony Lodge
A fierce quarrel broke out, which was increased by
the two guardsmen, who took sides with one of the loungers, and by the
scissors-grinder, who was equally hot upon the other side
Holmes
dashed into the crowd to protect the lady; but, just as he reached her,
he gave a cry and dropped to the ground, with the blood running freely
down his face
Irene
Adler, as I will still call her, had hurried up the steps; but she
stood at the top with her superb figure outlined against the lights of
the hall, looking back into the street
“Is the poor gentleman much hurt?” she asked
“He is dead,” cried several voices
“No, no, there’s life in him!” shouted another
“But he’ll be gone
before you can get him to hospital.”

“He’s a brave fellow,” said a woman
“They would have had the lady’s
purse and watch if it hadn’t been for him
They were a gang, and a
rough one, too
Ah, he’s breathing now.”

“He can’t lie in the street
May we bring him in, marm?”

“Surely
Bring him into the sitting-room
This way, please!”

Slowly and solemnly he was borne into Briony Lodge and laid out in the
principal room, while I still observed the proceedings from my post by
the window
The lamps had been lit, but the blinds had not been drawn,
so that I could see Holmes as he lay upon the couch
And yet it would be the blackest treachery to Holmes
to draw back now from the part which he had intrusted to me
I hardened
my heart, and took the smoke-rocket from under my ulster
After all, I
thought, we are not injuring her
We are but preventing her from
injuring another
Holmes had sat up upon the couch, and I saw him motion like a man who
is in need of air
A maid rushed across and threw open the window
I caught a glimpse of rushing figures, and a moment later
the voice of Holmes from within assuring them that it was a false
alarm
Slipping through the shouting crowd I made my way to the corner
of the street, and in ten minutes was rejoiced to find my friend’s arm
in mine, and to get away from the scene of uproar
He walked swiftly
and in silence for some few minutes until we had turned down one of the
quiet streets which lead towards the Edgeware Road
“You did it very nicely, Doctor,” he remarked
“Nothing could have been
better
“The matter was
perfectly simple
You, of course, saw that everyone in the street was
an accomplice
They were all engaged for the evening.”

“I guessed as much.”

“Then, when the row broke out, I had a little moist red paint in the
palm of my hand
I rushed forward, fell down, clapped my hand to my
face, and became a piteous spectacle
It is an old trick.”

“That also I could fathom.”

“Then they carried me in
And into her sitting-room, which was the very room which I
suspected
It lay between that and her bedroom, and I was determined to
see which
They laid me on a couch, I motioned for air, they were
compelled to open the window, and you had your chance.”

“How did that help you?”

“It was all-important
When a woman thinks that her house is on fire,
her instinct is at once to rush to the thing which she values most
It
is a perfectly overpowering impulse, and I have more than once taken
advantage of it
In the case of the Darlington Substitution Scandal it
was of use to me, and also in the Arnsworth Castle business
A married
woman grabs at her baby; an unmarried one reaches for her jewel-box
Now it was clear to me that our lady of to-day had nothing in the house
more precious to her than what we are in quest of
The alarm of fire was admirably done
The smoke and shouting
were enough to shake nerves of steel
The
photograph is in a recess behind a sliding panel just above the right
bell-pull
She was there in an instant, and I caught a glimpse of it as
she half drew it out
When I cried out that it was a false alarm, she
replaced it, glanced at the rocket, rushed from the room, and I have
not seen her since
I rose, and, making my excuses, escaped from the
house
I hesitated whether to attempt to secure the photograph at once;
but the coachman had come in, and as he was watching me narrowly, it
seemed safer to wait
A little over-precipitance may ruin all.”

“And now?” I asked
“Our quest is practically finished
I shall call with the King
to-morrow, and with you, if you care to come with us
We will be shown
into the sitting-room to wait for the lady, but it is probable that
when she comes she may find neither us nor the photograph
It might be
a satisfaction to his Majesty to regain it with his own hands.”

“And when will you call?”

“At eight in the morning
She will not be up, so that we shall have a
clear field
Besides, we must be prompt, for this marriage may mean a
complete change in her life and habits
I must wire to the King without
delay.”

We had reached Baker Street and had stopped at the door
“I’ve heard that voice before,” said Holmes, staring down the dimly lit
street
“Now, I wonder who the deuce that could have been.”


III
I slept at Baker Street that night, and we were engaged upon our toast
and coffee in the morning when the King of Bohemia rushed into the
room
“You have really got it!” he cried, grasping Sherlock Holmes by either
shoulder and looking eagerly into his face
“Not yet.”

“But you have hopes?”

“I have hopes.”

“Then, come
I am all impatience to be gone.”

“We must have a cab.”

“No, my brougham is waiting.”

“Then that will simplify matters.” We descended and started off once
more for Briony Lodge
“Irene Adler is married,” remarked Holmes
If
the lady loves her husband, she does not love your Majesty
If she does
not love your Majesty, there is no reason why she should interfere with
your Majesty’s plan.”

“It is true
I wish she had been of my own station
What a queen she would have made!” He relapsed into a moody silence,
which was not broken until we drew up in Serpentine Avenue
The door of Briony Lodge was open, and an elderly woman stood upon the
steps
She watched us with a sardonic eye as we stepped from the
brougham
Sherlock Holmes, I believe?” said she
Holmes,” answered my companion, looking at her with a
questioning and rather startled gaze
My mistress told me that you were likely to call
She left
this morning with her husband by the 5:15 train from Charing Cross for
the Continent.”

“What!” Sherlock Holmes staggered back, white with chagrin and
surprise
“Do you mean that she has left England?”

“Never to return.”

“And the papers?” asked the King hoarsely
“All is lost.”

“We shall see.” He pushed past the servant and rushed into the
drawing-room, followed by the King and myself
The furniture was
scattered about in every direction, with dismantled shelves and open
drawers, as if the lady had hurriedly ransacked them before her flight
Holmes rushed at the bell-pull, tore back a small sliding shutter, and,
plunging in his hand, pulled out a photograph and a letter
The
photograph was of Irene Adler herself in evening dress, the letter was
superscribed to “Sherlock Holmes, Esq
To be left till called for.” My
friend tore it open, and we all three read it together
It was dated at
midnight of the preceding night and ran in this way:

    “MY DEAR MR
SHERLOCK HOLMES,—You really did it very well
Until after the alarm of fire, I had not a
    suspicion
But then, when I found how I had betrayed myself, I
    began to think
I had been warned against you months ago
I had
    been told that, if the King employed an agent, it would certainly
    be you
And your address had been given me
Yet, with all this, you
    made me reveal what you wanted to know
Even after I became
    suspicious, I found it hard to think evil of such a dear, kind old
    clergyman
But, you know, I have been trained as an actress myself
Male costume is nothing new to me
I often take advantage of the
    freedom which it gives
I sent John, the coachman, to watch you,
    ran upstairs, got into my walking clothes, as I call them, and came
    down just as you departed
“Well, I followed you to your door, and so made sure that I was
    really an object of interest to the celebrated Mr
Then I, rather imprudently, wished you good-night, and started for
    the Temple to see my husband
“We both thought the best resource was flight, when pursued by so
    formidable an antagonist; so you will find the nest empty when you
    call to-morrow
As to the photograph, your client may rest in
    peace
I love and am loved by a better man than he
The King may do
    what he will without hindrance from one whom he has cruelly
    wronged
I keep it only to safeguard myself, and to preserve a
    weapon which will always secure me from any steps which he might
    take in the future
I leave a photograph which he might care to
    possess; and I remain, dear Mr
Sherlock Holmes,


    “Very truly yours,

    “IRENE NORTON, _née_ ADLER.”


“What a woman—oh, what a woman!” cried the King of Bohemia, when we had
all three read this epistle
“Did I not tell you how quick and resolute
she was
Would she not have made an admirable queen
Is it not a pity
that she was not on my level?”

“From what I have seen of the lady, she seems, indeed, to be on a very
different level to your Majesty,” said Holmes coldly
“I am sorry that
I have not been able to bring your Majesty’s business to a more
successful conclusion.”

“On the contrary, my dear sir,” cried the King; “nothing could be more
successful
I know that her word is inviolate
The photograph is now as
safe as if it were in the fire.”

“I am glad to hear your Majesty say so.”

“I am immensely indebted to you
Pray tell me in what way I can reward
you
This ring—” He slipped an emerald snake ring from his finger and
held it out upon the palm of his hand
“Your Majesty has something which I should value even more highly,”
said Holmes
“You have but to name it.”

“This photograph!”

The King stared at him in amazement
“Certainly, if you wish it.”

“I thank your Majesty
Then there is no more to be done in the matter
I have the honour to wish you a very good morning.” He bowed, and,
turning away without observing the hand which the King had stretched
out to him, he set off in my company for his chambers
And that was how a great scandal threatened to affect the kingdom of
Bohemia, and how the best plans of Mr
Sherlock Holmes were beaten by a
woman’s wit
He used to make merry over the cleverness of women, but I
have not heard him do it of late
And when he speaks of Irene Adler, or
when he refers to her photograph, it is always under the honourable
title of _the_ woman
THE RED-HEADED LEAGUE


 I had called upon my friend, Mr
Sherlock Holmes, one day in the
 autumn of last year and found him in deep conversation with a very
 stout, florid-faced, elderly gentleman with fiery red hair
With an
 apology for my intrusion, I was about to withdraw when Holmes pulled
 me abruptly into the room and closed the door behind me
“You could not possibly have come at a better time, my dear Watson,” he
said cordially
“I was afraid that you were engaged.”

“So I am
Very much so.”

“Then I can wait in the next room.”

“Not at all
“Try the settee,” said Holmes, relapsing into his armchair and putting
his fingertips together, as was his custom when in judicial moods
“I
know, my dear Watson, that you share my love of all that is bizarre and
outside the conventions and humdrum routine of everyday life
Jabez Wilson here has been good enough to call upon me this morning,
and to begin a narrative which promises to be one of the most singular
which I have listened to for some time
Wilson, you would have the great kindness to recommence
your narrative
I ask you not merely because my friend Dr
Watson has
not heard the opening part but also because the peculiar nature of the
story makes me anxious to have every possible detail from your lips
As
a rule, when I have heard some slight indication of the course of
events, I am able to guide myself by the thousands of other similar
cases which occur to my memory
I did not gain very much, however, by my inspection
Our visitor bore
every mark of being an average commonplace British tradesman, obese,
pompous, and slow
A frayed top-hat and a faded brown
overcoat with a wrinkled velvet collar lay upon a chair beside him
Altogether, look as I would, there was nothing remarkable about the man
save his blazing red head, and the expression of extreme chagrin and
discontent upon his features
Sherlock Holmes’ quick eye took in my occupation, and he shook his head
with a smile as he noticed my questioning glances
Jabez Wilson started up in his chair, with his forefinger upon the
paper, but his eyes upon my companion
“How, in the name of good-fortune, did you know all that, Mr
“How did you know, for example, that I did manual labour
It’s as true as gospel, for I began as a ship’s carpenter.”

“Your hands, my dear sir
Your right hand is quite a size larger than
your left
I have made a small study of tattoo
marks and have even contributed to the literature of the subject
That
trick of staining the fishes’ scales of a delicate pink is quite
peculiar to China
When, in addition, I see a Chinese coin hanging from
your watch-chain, the matter becomes even more simple.”

Mr
“I thought
at first that you had done something clever, but I see that there was
nothing in it after all.”

“I begin to think, Watson,” said Holmes, “that I make a mistake in
explaining
‘_Omne ignotum pro magnifico_,’ you know, and my poor
little reputation, such as it is, will suffer shipwreck if I am so
candid
Can you not find the advertisement, Mr
Wilson?”

“Yes, I have got it now,” he answered with his thick red finger planted
halfway down the column
All red-headed men who are sound in
body and mind and above the age of twenty-one years, are eligible
Holmes chuckled and wriggled in his chair, as was his habit when in
high spirits
“It is a little off the beaten track, isn’t it?” said he
Wilson, off you go at scratch and tell us all about
yourself, your household, and the effect which this advertisement had
upon your fortunes
You will first make a note, Doctor, of the paper
and the date.”

“It is _The Morning Chronicle_ of April 27, 1890
Just two months ago.”

“Very good
Wilson?”

“Well, it is just as I have been telling you, Mr
Sherlock Holmes,”
said Jabez Wilson, mopping his forehead; “I have a small pawnbroker’s
business at Coburg Square, near the City
It’s not a very large affair,
and of late years it has not done more than just give me a living
“His name is Vincent Spaulding, and he’s not such a youth, either
I should not wish a smarter assistant, Mr
Holmes;
and I know very well that he could better himself and earn twice what I
am able to give him
But, after all, if he is satisfied, why should I
put ideas in his head?”

“Why, indeed
You seem most fortunate in having an _employé_ who comes
under the full market price
It is not a common experience among
employers in this age
I don’t know that your assistant is not as
remarkable as your advertisement.”

“Oh, he has his faults, too,” said Mr
“Never was such a fellow
for photography
Snapping away with a camera when he ought to be
improving his mind, and then diving down into the cellar like a rabbit
into its hole to develop his pictures
That is his main fault, but on
the whole he’s a good worker
There’s no vice in him.”

“He is still with you, I presume?”

“Yes, sir
He and a girl of fourteen, who does a bit of simple cooking
and keeps the place clean—that’s all I have in the house, for I am a
widower and never had any family
We live very quietly, sir, the three
of us; and we keep a roof over our heads and pay our debts, if we do
nothing more
“The first thing that put us out was that advertisement
Spaulding, he
came down into the office just this day eight weeks, with this very
paper in his hand, and he says:

“‘I wish to the Lord, Mr
Wilson, that I was a red-headed man.’

“‘Why that?’ I asks
“‘Why,’ says he, ‘here’s another vacancy on the League of the
Red-headed Men
It’s worth quite a little fortune to any man who gets
it, and I understand that there are more vacancies than there are men,
so that the trustees are at their wits’ end what to do with the money
If my hair would only change colour, here’s a nice little crib all
ready for me to step into.’

“‘Why, what is it, then?’ I asked
Holmes, I am a very
stay-at-home man, and as my business came to me instead of my having to
go to it, I was often weeks on end without putting my foot over the
door-mat
In that way I didn’t know much of what was going on outside,
and I was always glad of a bit of news
“‘Have you never heard of the League of the Red-headed Men?’ he asked
with his eyes open
“‘Never.’

“‘Why, I wonder at that, for you are eligible yourself for one of the
vacancies.’

“‘And what are they worth?’ I asked
“‘Tell me all about it,’ said I
“‘Well,’ said he, showing me the advertisement, ‘you can see for
yourself that the League has a vacancy, and there is the address where
you should apply for particulars
As far as I can make out, the League
was founded by an American millionaire, Ezekiah Hopkins, who was very
peculiar in his ways
From all I hear it is splendid pay
and very little to do.’

“‘But,’ said I, ‘there would be millions of red-headed men who would
apply.’

“‘Not so many as you might think,’ he answered
‘You see it is really
confined to Londoners, and to grown men
This American had started from
London when he was young, and he wanted to do the old town a good turn
Then, again, I have heard it is no use your applying if your hair is
light red, or dark red, or anything but real bright, blazing, fiery
red
Vincent Spaulding seemed to know so
much about it that I thought he might prove useful, so I just ordered
him to put up the shutters for the day and to come right away with me
He was very willing to have a holiday, so we shut the business up and
started off for the address that was given us in the advertisement
“I never hope to see such a sight as that again, Mr
From
north, south, east, and west every man who had a shade of red in his
hair had tramped into the city to answer the advertisement
Fleet
Street was choked with red-headed folk, and Pope’s Court looked like a
coster’s orange barrow
I should not have thought there were so many in
the whole country as were brought together by that single
advertisement
Every shade of colour they were—straw, lemon, orange,
brick, Irish-setter, liver, clay; but, as Spaulding said, there were
not many who had the real vivid flame-coloured tint
When I saw how
many were waiting, I would have given it up in despair; but Spaulding
would not hear of it
How he did it I could not imagine, but he pushed
and pulled and butted until he got me through the crowd, and right up
to the steps which led to the office
He said a few words to each candidate as he came up,
and then he always managed to find some fault in them which would
disqualify them
Getting a vacancy did not seem to be such a very easy
matter, after all
However, when our turn came the little man was much
more favourable to me than to any of the others, and he closed the door
as we entered, so that he might have a private word with us
Jabez Wilson,’ said my assistant, ‘and he is willing to
fill a vacancy in the League.’

“‘And he is admirably suited for it,’ the other answered
I cannot recall when I have seen anything so fine.’ He
took a step backward, cocked his head on one side, and gazed at my hair
until I felt quite bashful
Then suddenly he plunged forward, wrung my
hand, and congratulated me warmly on my success
“‘It would be injustice to hesitate,’ said he
‘You will, however, I am
sure, excuse me for taking an obvious precaution.’ With that he seized
my hair in both his hands, and tugged until I yelled with the pain
‘There is water in your eyes,’ said he as he released me
‘I perceive
that all is as it should be
But we have to be careful, for we have
twice been deceived by wigs and once by paint
I could tell you tales
of cobbler’s wax which would disgust you with human nature.’ He stepped
over to the window and shouted through it at the top of his voice that
the vacancy was filled
A groan of disappointment came up from below,
and the folk all trooped away in different directions until there was
not a red-head to be seen except my own and that of the manager
Duncan Ross, and I am myself one of the
pensioners upon the fund left by our noble benefactor
Have you a family?’

“I answered that I had not
“‘Dear me!’ he said gravely, ‘that is very serious indeed
I am sorry
to hear you say that
The fund was, of course, for the propagation and
spread of the red-heads as well as for their maintenance
It is
exceedingly unfortunate that you should be a bachelor.’

“My face lengthened at this, Mr
Holmes, for I thought that I was not
to have the vacancy after all; but after thinking it over for a few
minutes he said that it would be all right
“‘In the case of another,’ said he, ‘the objection might be fatal, but
we must stretch a point in favour of a man with such a head of hair as
yours
When shall you be able to enter upon your new duties?’

“‘Well, it is a little awkward, for I have a business already,’ said I
“‘Oh, never mind about that, Mr
Wilson!’ said Vincent Spaulding
‘I
should be able to look after that for you.’

“‘What would be the hours?’ I asked
“‘Ten to two.’

“Now a pawnbroker’s business is mostly done of an evening, Mr
Holmes,
especially Thursday and Friday evening, which is just before pay-day;
so it would suit me very well to earn a little in the mornings
Besides, I knew that my assistant was a good man, and that he would see
to anything that turned up
“‘That would suit me very well,’ said I
‘And the pay?’

“‘Is £ 4 a week.’

“‘And the work?’

“‘Is purely nominal.’

“‘What do you call purely nominal?’

“‘Well, you have to be in the office, or at least in the building, the
whole time
If you leave, you forfeit your whole position forever
The
will is very clear upon that point
You don’t comply with the
conditions if you budge from the office during that time.’

“‘It’s only four hours a day, and I should not think of leaving,’ said
I
“‘No excuse will avail,’ said Mr
Duncan Ross; ‘neither sickness nor
business nor anything else
There you must stay, or you lose your
billet.’

“‘And the work?’

“‘Is to copy out the _Encyclopædia Britannica_
There is the first
volume of it in that press
You must find your own ink, pens, and
blotting-paper, but we provide this table and chair
Will you be ready
to-morrow?’

“‘Certainly,’ I answered
It seemed altogether past belief that anyone could
make such a will, or that they would pay such a sum for doing anything
so simple as copying out the _Encyclopædia Britannica_
Vincent
Spaulding did what he could to cheer me up, but by bedtime I had
reasoned myself out of the whole thing
However, in the morning I
determined to have a look at it anyhow, so I bought a penny bottle of
ink, and with a quill-pen, and seven sheets of foolscap paper, I
started off for Pope’s Court
“Well, to my surprise and delight, everything was as right as possible
The table was set out ready for me, and Mr
Duncan Ross was there to
see that I got fairly to work
He started me off upon the letter A, and
then he left me; but he would drop in from time to time to see that all
was right with me
At two o’clock he bade me good-day, complimented me
upon the amount that I had written, and locked the door of the office
after me
“This went on day after day, Mr
Holmes, and on Saturday the manager
came in and planked down four golden sovereigns for my week’s work
It
was the same next week, and the same the week after
Every morning I
was there at ten, and every afternoon I left at two
Duncan Ross took to coming in only once of a morning, and then, after a
time, he did not come in at all
“Eight weeks passed away like this, and I had written about Abbots and
Archery and Armour and Architecture and Attica, and hoped with
diligence that I might get on to the B’s before very long
It cost me
something in foolscap, and I had pretty nearly filled a shelf with my
writings
And then suddenly the whole business came to an end.”

“To an end?”

“Yes, sir
I went to my work as usual
at ten o’clock, but the door was shut and locked, with a little square
of cardboard hammered on to the middle of the panel with a tack
Here
it is, and you can read for yourself.”

He held up a piece of white cardboard about the size of a sheet of
note-paper
It read in this fashion:

“THE RED-HEADED LEAGUE IS DISSOLVED
“I cannot see that there is anything very funny,” cried our client,
flushing up to the roots of his flaming head
“If you can do nothing
better than laugh at me, I can go elsewhere.”

“No, no,” cried Holmes, shoving him back into the chair from which he
had half risen
“I really wouldn’t miss your case for the world
It is
most refreshingly unusual
But there is, if you will excuse my saying
so, something just a little funny about it
Pray what steps did you
take when you found the card upon the door?”

“I was staggered, sir
Then I called at the
offices round, but none of them seemed to know anything about it
Finally, I went to the landlord, who is an accountant living on the
ground floor, and I asked him if he could tell me what had become of
the Red-headed League
He said that he had never heard of any such
body
He answered that the
name was new to him
“‘Well,’ said I, ‘the gentleman at No
4.’

“‘What, the red-headed man?’

“‘Yes.’

“‘Oh,’ said he, ‘his name was William Morris
He was a solicitor and
was using my room as a temporary convenience until his new premises
were ready
He moved out yesterday.’

“‘Where could I find him?’

“‘Oh, at his new offices
Yes, 17 King
Edward Street, near St
Holmes, but when I got to that address it was a
manufactory of artificial knee-caps, and no one in it had ever heard of
either Mr
Duncan Ross.”

“And what did you do then?” asked Holmes
“I went home to Saxe-Coburg Square, and I took the advice of my
assistant
But he could not help me in any way
He could only say that
if I waited I should hear by post
But that was not quite good enough,
Mr
“Your case is an exceedingly
remarkable one, and I shall be happy to look into it
From what you
have told me I think that it is possible that graver issues hang from
it than might at first sight appear.”

“Grave enough!” said Mr
“Why, I have lost four pound a
week.”

“As far as you are personally concerned,” remarked Holmes, “I do not
see that you have any grievance against this extraordinary league
On
the contrary, you are, as I understand, richer by some £ 30, to say
nothing of the minute knowledge which you have gained on every subject
which comes under the letter A
You have lost nothing by them.”

“No, sir
But I want to find out about them, and who they are, and what
their object was in playing this prank—if it was a prank—upon me
It
was a pretty expensive joke for them, for it cost them two and thirty
pounds.”

“We shall endeavour to clear up these points for you
And, first, one
or two questions, Mr
Has a white splash of acid upon his
forehead.”

Holmes sat up in his chair in considerable excitement
“Have you ever observed that his ears are pierced for
earrings?”

“Yes, sir
He told me that a gipsy had done it for him when he was a
lad.”

“Hum!” said Holmes, sinking back in deep thought
“He is still with
you?”

“Oh, yes, sir; I have only just left him.”

“And has your business been attended to in your absence?”

“Nothing to complain of, sir
There’s never very much to do of a
morning.”

“That will do, Mr
I shall be happy to give you an opinion upon
the subject in the course of a day or two
“It is a most mysterious
business.”

“As a rule,” said Holmes, “the more bizarre a thing is the less
mysterious it proves to be
It is your commonplace, featureless crimes
which are really puzzling, just as a commonplace face is the most
difficult to identify
But I must be prompt over this matter.”

“What are you going to do, then?” I asked
James’s Hall this afternoon,” he remarked
Could your patients spare you for a few
hours?”

“I have nothing to do to-day
My practice is never very absorbing.”

“Then put on your hat and come
I am going through the City first, and
we can have some lunch on the way
I observe that there is a good deal
of German music on the programme, which is rather more to my taste than
Italian or French
It is introspective, and I want to introspect
Come
along!”

We travelled by the Underground as far as Aldersgate; and a short walk
took us to Saxe-Coburg Square, the scene of the singular story which we
had listened to in the morning
Three gilt balls and a brown board with
“JABEZ WILSON” in white letters, upon a corner house, announced the
place where our red-headed client carried on his business
Sherlock
Holmes stopped in front of it with his head on one side and looked it
all over, with his eyes shining brightly between puckered lids
Then he
walked slowly up the street, and then down again to the corner, still
looking keenly at the houses
Finally he returned to the pawnbroker’s,
and, having thumped vigorously upon the pavement with his stick two or
three times, he went up to the door and knocked
It was instantly
opened by a bright-looking, clean-shaven young fellow, who asked him to
step in
“Thank you,” said Holmes, “I only wished to ask you how you would go
from here to the Strand.”

“Third right, fourth left,” answered the assistant promptly, closing
the door
“Smart fellow, that,” observed Holmes as we walked away
“He is, in my
judgment, the fourth smartest man in London, and for daring I am not
sure that he has not a claim to be third
I have known something of him
before.”

“Evidently,” said I, “Mr
Wilson’s assistant counts for a good deal in
this mystery of the Red-headed League
We are
spies in an enemy’s country
We know something of Saxe-Coburg Square
It was one of the main
arteries which conveyed the traffic of the City to the north and west
The roadway was blocked with the immense stream of commerce flowing in
a double tide inward and outward, while the footpaths were black with
the hurrying swarm of pedestrians
“Let me see,” said Holmes, standing at the corner and glancing along
the line, “I should like just to remember the order of the houses here
It is a hobby of mine to have an exact knowledge of London
There is
Mortimer’s, the tobacconist, the little newspaper shop, the Coburg
branch of the City and Suburban Bank, the Vegetarian Restaurant, and
McFarlane’s carriage-building depot
That carries us right on to the
other block
And now, Doctor, we’ve done our work, so it’s time we had
some play
When I saw him that afternoon so enwrapped in the music at St
James’s Hall I felt that an evil time might be coming upon those whom
he had set himself to hunt down
“You want to go home, no doubt, Doctor,” he remarked as we emerged
“Yes, it would be as well.”

“And I have some business to do which will take some hours
This
business at Coburg Square is serious.”

“Why serious?”

“A considerable crime is in contemplation
I have every reason to
believe that we shall be in time to stop it
But to-day being Saturday
rather complicates matters
I shall want your help to-night.”

“At what time?”

“Ten will be early enough.”

“I shall be at Baker Street at ten.”

“Very well
And, I say, Doctor, there may be some little danger, so
kindly put your army revolver in your pocket.” He waved his hand,
turned on his heel, and disappeared in an instant among the crowd
I trust that I am not more dense than my neighbours, but I was always
oppressed with a sense of my own stupidity in my dealings with Sherlock
Holmes
What was this nocturnal expedition, and why should I go armed
Where were we going, and what were we to do
I had the hint from Holmes
that this smooth-faced pawnbroker’s assistant was a formidable man—a
man who might play a deep game
I tried to puzzle it out, but gave it
up in despair and set the matter aside until night should bring an
explanation
It was a quarter-past nine when I started from home and made my way
across the Park, and so through Oxford Street to Baker Street
Two
hansoms were standing at the door, and as I entered the passage I heard
the sound of voices from above
Our party is complete,” said Holmes, buttoning up his pea-jacket
and taking his heavy hunting crop from the rack
Merryweather, who is to be our companion in to-night’s adventure.”

“We’re hunting in couples again, Doctor, you see,” said Jones in his
consequential way
“Our friend here is a wonderful man for starting a
chase
All he wants is an old dog to help him to do the running down.”

“I hope a wild goose may not prove to be the end of our chase,”
observed Mr
“You may place considerable confidence in Mr
Holmes, sir,” said the
police agent loftily
“He has his own little methods, which are, if he
won’t mind my saying so, just a little too theoretical and fantastic,
but he has the makings of a detective in him
It is not too much to say
that once or twice, as in that business of the Sholto murder and the
Agra treasure, he has been more nearly correct than the official
force.”

“Oh, if you say so, Mr
Jones, it is all right,” said the stranger with
deference
“Still, I confess that I miss my rubber
Merryweather, the stake will be
some £ 30,000; and for you, Jones, it will be the man upon whom you
wish to lay your hands.”

“John Clay, the murderer, thief, smasher, and forger
Merryweather, but he is at the head of his profession, and I would
rather have my bracelets on him than on any criminal in London
He’s a
remarkable man, is young John Clay
His grandfather was a royal duke,
and he himself has been to Eton and Oxford
His brain is as cunning as
his fingers, and though we meet signs of him at every turn, we never
know where to find the man himself
He’ll crack a crib in Scotland one
week, and be raising money to build an orphanage in Cornwall the next
I’ve been on his track for years and have never set eyes on him yet.”

“I hope that I may have the pleasure of introducing you to-night
I’ve
had one or two little turns also with Mr
John Clay, and I agree with
you that he is at the head of his profession
It is past ten, however,
and quite time that we started
We rattled through an endless labyrinth of gas-lit streets
until we emerged into Farrington Street
“We are close there now,” my friend remarked
“This fellow Merryweather
is a bank director, and personally interested in the matter
I thought
it as well to have Jones with us also
He is not a bad fellow, though
an absolute imbecile in his profession
He
is as brave as a bulldog and as tenacious as a lobster if he gets his
claws upon anyone
Here we are, and they are waiting for us.”

We had reached the same crowded thoroughfare in which we had found
ourselves in the morning
Our cabs were dismissed, and, following the
guidance of Mr
Merryweather, we passed down a narrow passage and
through a side door, which he opened for us
Within there was a small
corridor, which ended in a very massive iron gate
This also was
opened, and led down a flight of winding stone steps, which terminated
at another formidable gate
“You are not very vulnerable from above,” Holmes remarked as he held up
the lantern and gazed about him
Merryweather, striking his stick upon the
flags which lined the floor
“Why, dear me, it sounds quite hollow!” he
remarked, looking up in surprise
“I must really ask you to be a little more quiet!” said Holmes
severely
“You have already imperilled the whole success of our
expedition
Might I beg that you would have the goodness to sit down
upon one of those boxes, and not to interfere?”

The solemn Mr
A few seconds sufficed to
satisfy him, for he sprang to his feet again and put his glass in his
pocket
“We have at least an hour before us,” he remarked, “for they can hardly
take any steps until the good pawnbroker is safely in bed
Then they
will not lose a minute, for the sooner they do their work the longer
time they will have for their escape
We are at present, Doctor—as no
doubt you have divined—in the cellar of the City branch of one of the
principal London banks
“We have had several
warnings that an attempt might be made upon it.”

“Your French gold?”

“Yes
We had occasion some months ago to strengthen our resources and
borrowed for that purpose 30,000 napoleons from the Bank of France
It
has become known that we have never had occasion to unpack the money,
and that it is still lying in our cellar
The crate upon which I sit
contains 2,000 napoleons packed between layers of lead foil
“And now it is time
that we arranged our little plans
I expect that within an hour matters
will come to a head
Merryweather, we must put the
screen over that dark lantern.”

“And sit in the dark?”

“I am afraid so
I had brought a pack of cards in my pocket, and I
thought that, as we were a _partie carrée_, you might have your rubber
after all
But I see that the enemy’s preparations have gone so far
that we cannot risk the presence of a light
And, first of all, we must
choose our positions
These are daring men, and though we shall take
them at a disadvantage, they may do us some harm unless we are careful
I shall stand behind this crate, and do you conceal yourselves behind
those
Then, when I flash a light upon them, close in swiftly
If they
fire, Watson, have no compunction about shooting them down.”

I placed my revolver, cocked, upon the top of the wooden case behind
which I crouched
Holmes shot the slide across the front of his lantern
and left us in pitch darkness—such an absolute darkness as I have never
before experienced
The smell of hot metal remained to assure us that
the light was still there, ready to flash out at a moment’s notice
To
me, with my nerves worked up to a pitch of expectancy, there was
something depressing and subduing in the sudden gloom, and in the cold
dank air of the vault
“They have but one retreat,” whispered Holmes
“That is back through
the house into Saxe-Coburg Square
I hope that you have done what I
asked you, Jones?”

“I have an inspector and two officers waiting at the front door.”

“Then we have stopped all the holes
And now we must be silent and
wait.”

What a time it seemed
From comparing notes afterwards it was but an
hour and a quarter, yet it appeared to me that the night must have
almost gone, and the dawn be breaking above us
From my position I could look
over the case in the direction of the floor
Suddenly my eyes caught
the glint of a light
At first it was but a lurid spark upon the stone pavement
For a minute or more the hand, with its writhing fingers,
protruded out of the floor
Then it was withdrawn as suddenly as it
appeared, and all was dark again save the single lurid spark which
marked a chink between the stones
Its disappearance, however, was but momentary
With a rending, tearing
sound, one of the broad, white stones turned over upon its side and
left a square, gaping hole, through which streamed the light of a
lantern
In another instant he stood at the side of the
hole and was hauling after him a companion, lithe and small like
himself, with a pale face and a shock of very red hair
“Have you the chisel and the bags
Jump, Archie, jump, and I’ll swing for it!”

Sherlock Holmes had sprung out and seized the intruder by the collar
The other dived down the hole, and I heard the sound of rending cloth
as Jones clutched at his skirts
The light flashed upon the barrel of a
revolver, but Holmes’ hunting crop came down on the man’s wrist, and
the pistol clinked upon the stone floor
“It’s no use, John Clay,” said Holmes blandly
“You have no chance at
all.”

“So I see,” the other answered with the utmost coolness
“I fancy that
my pal is all right, though I see you have got his coat-tails.”

“There are three men waiting for him at the door,” said Holmes
You seem to have done the thing very completely
I must
compliment you.”

“And I you,” Holmes answered
“Your red-headed idea was very new and
effective.”

“You’ll see your pal again presently,” said Jones
“He’s quicker at
climbing down holes than I am
Just hold out while I fix the derbies.”

“I beg that you will not touch me with your filthy hands,” remarked our
prisoner as the handcuffs clattered upon his wrists
“You may not be
aware that I have royal blood in my veins
Have the goodness, also,
when you address me always to say ‘sir’ and ‘please.’”

“All right,” said Jones with a stare and a snigger
“Well, would you
please, sir, march upstairs, where we can get a cab to carry your
Highness to the police-station?”

“That is better,” said John Clay serenely
He made a sweeping bow to
the three of us and walked quietly off in the custody of the detective
Merryweather as we followed them from
the cellar, “I do not know how the bank can thank you or repay you
It was a curious way of
managing it, but, really, it would be difficult to suggest a better
The method was no doubt suggested to Clay’s ingenious mind by the
colour of his accomplice’s hair
The £ 4 a week was a lure which must
draw him, and what was it to them, who were playing for thousands
They
put in the advertisement, one rogue has the temporary office, the other
rogue incites the man to apply for it, and together they manage to
secure his absence every morning in the week
That, however, was out of the question
The man’s
business was a small one, and there was nothing in his house which
could account for such elaborate preparations, and such an expenditure
as they were at
It must, then, be something out of the house
I thought of the assistant’s fondness for photography, and
his trick of vanishing into the cellar
There was the end
of this tangled clue
Then I made inquiries as to this mysterious
assistant and found that I had to deal with one of the coolest and most
daring criminals in London
He was doing something in the
cellar—something which took many hours a day for months on end
I could think of nothing save that he was
running a tunnel to some other building
“So far I had got when we went to visit the scene of action
I
surprised you by beating upon the pavement with my stick
I was
ascertaining whether the cellar stretched out in front or behind
Then I rang the bell, and, as I hoped, the assistant
answered it
We have had some skirmishes, but we had never set eyes
upon each other before
His knees were
what I wished to see
You must yourself have remarked how worn,
wrinkled, and stained they were
They spoke of those hours of
burrowing
The only remaining point was what they were burrowing for
I
walked round the corner, saw the City and Suburban Bank abutted on our
friend’s premises, and felt that I had solved my problem
“Well, when they closed their League offices that was a sign that they
cared no longer about Mr
Jabez Wilson’s presence—in other words, that
they had completed their tunnel
But it was essential that they should
use it soon, as it might be discovered, or the bullion might be
removed
Saturday would suit them better than any other day, as it
would give them two days for their escape
For all these reasons I
expected them to come to-night.”

“You reasoned it out beautifully,” I exclaimed in unfeigned admiration
“It is so long a chain, and yet every link rings true.”

“It saved me from ennui,” he answered, yawning
I already feel
it closing in upon me
My life is spent in one long effort to escape
from the commonplaces of existence
These little problems help me to do
so.”

“And you are a benefactor of the race,” said I
“Well, perhaps, after all, it is of some
little use,” he remarked
“‘_L’homme c’est rien—l’œuvre c’est tout_,’
as Gustave Flaubert wrote to George Sand.”




III
We would not dare to
conceive the things which are really mere commonplaces of existence
“The cases which come
to light in the papers are, as a rule, bald enough, and vulgar enough
Depend upon it, there is nothing so
unnatural as the commonplace.”

I smiled and shook my head
“I can quite understand your thinking so,”
I said
“Of course, in your position of unofficial adviser and helper
to everybody who is absolutely puzzled, throughout three continents,
you are brought in contact with all that is strange and bizarre
But
here”—I picked up the morning paper from the ground—“let us put it to a
practical test
Here is the first heading upon which I come
‘A
husband’s cruelty to his wife.’ There is half a column of print, but I
know without reading it that it is all perfectly familiar to me
There
is, of course, the other woman, the drink, the push, the blow, the
bruise, the sympathetic sister or landlady
The crudest of writers
could invent nothing more crude.”

“Indeed, your example is an unfortunate one for your argument,” said
Holmes, taking the paper and glancing his eye down it
“This is the
Dundas separation case, and, as it happens, I was engaged in clearing
up some small points in connection with it
Take a pinch of snuff, Doctor, and acknowledge
that I have scored over you in your example.”

He held out his snuffbox of old gold, with a great amethyst in the
centre of the lid
Its splendour was in such contrast to his homely
ways and simple life that I could not help commenting upon it
“Ah,” said he, “I forgot that I had not seen you for some weeks
“Some ten or twelve, but none which present any feature of interest
They are important, you understand, without being interesting
Indeed,
I have found that it is usually in unimportant matters that there is a
field for the observation, and for the quick analysis of cause and
effect which gives the charm to an investigation
The larger crimes are
apt to be the simpler, for the bigger the crime the more obvious, as a
rule, is the motive
In these cases, save for one rather intricate
matter which has been referred to me from Marseilles, there is nothing
which presents any features of interest
From under this great panoply she
peeped up in a nervous, hesitating fashion at our windows, while her
body oscillated backward and forward, and her fingers fidgeted with her
glove buttons
Suddenly, with a plunge, as of the swimmer who leaves
the bank, she hurried across the road, and we heard the sharp clang of
the bell
“I have seen those symptoms before,” said Holmes, throwing his
cigarette into the fire
“Oscillation upon the pavement always means an
_affaire de cœur_
She would like advice, but is not sure that the
matter is not too delicate for communication
And yet even here we may
discriminate
When a woman has been seriously wronged by a man she no
longer oscillates, and the usual symptom is a broken bell wire
Here we
may take it that there is a love matter, but that the maiden is not so
much angry as perplexed, or grieved
Holmes,” she cried, “else how could you know all that?”

“Never mind,” said Holmes, laughing; “it is my business to know things
Perhaps I have trained myself to see what others overlook
If not, why
should you come to consult me?”

“I came to you, sir, because I heard of you from Mrs
Etherege, whose
husband you found so easy when the police and everyone had given him up
for dead
Holmes, I wish you would do as much for me
I’m not
rich, but still I have a hundred a year in my own right, besides the
little that I make by the machine, and I would give it all to know what
has become of Mr
Hosmer Angel.”

“Why did you come away to consult me in such a hurry?” asked Sherlock
Holmes, with his finger-tips together and his eyes to the ceiling
Again a startled look came over the somewhat vacuous face of Miss Mary
Sutherland
“Yes, I did bang out of the house,” she said, “for it made
me angry to see the easy way in which Mr
Windibank—that is, my
father—took it all
I call him father, though it sounds funny, too,
for he is only five years and two months older than myself.”

“And your mother is alive?”

“Oh, yes, mother is alive and well
Holmes,
when she married again so soon after father’s death, and a man who was
nearly fifteen years younger than herself
Father was a plumber in the
Tottenham Court Road, and he left a tidy business behind him, which
mother carried on with Mr
Hardy, the foreman; but when Mr
Windibank
came he made her sell the business, for he was very superior, being a
traveller in wines
“Your own little income,” he asked, “does it come out of the business?”

“Oh, no, sir
It is quite separate and was left me by my uncle Ned in
Auckland
It is in New Zealand stock, paying 4½ per cent
Two thousand
five hundred pounds was the amount, but I can only touch the interest.”

“You interest me extremely,” said Holmes
“And since you draw so large
a sum as a hundred a year, with what you earn into the bargain, you no
doubt travel a little and indulge yourself in every way
I believe that
a single lady can get on very nicely upon an income of about £ 60.”

“I could do with much less than that, Mr
Holmes, but you understand
that as long as I live at home I don’t wish to be a burden to them, and
so they have the use of the money just while I am staying with them
Of
course, that is only just for the time
Windibank draws my interest
every quarter and pays it over to mother, and I find that I can do
pretty well with what I earn at typewriting
It brings me twopence a
sheet, and I can often do from fifteen to twenty sheets in a day.”

“You have made your position very clear to me,” said Holmes
Watson, before whom you can speak as freely as before
myself
Kindly tell us now all about your connection with Mr
Hosmer
Angel.”

A flush stole over Miss Sutherland’s face, and she picked nervously at
the fringe of her jacket
“I met him first at the gasfitters’ ball,”
she said
“They used to send father tickets when he was alive, and then
afterwards they remembered us, and sent them to mother
Windibank
did not wish us to go
He never did wish us to go anywhere
He would
get quite mad if I wanted so much as to join a Sunday-school treat
But
this time I was set on going, and I would go; for what right had he to
prevent
He said the folk were not fit for us to know, when all
father’s friends were to be there
And he said that I had nothing fit
to wear, when I had my purple plush that I had never so much as taken
out of the drawer
At last, when nothing else would do, he went off to
France upon the business of the firm, but we went, mother and I, with
Mr
Hardy, who used to be our foreman, and it was there I met Mr
Hosmer Angel.”

“I suppose,” said Holmes, “that when Mr
Windibank came back from
France he was very annoyed at your having gone to the ball.”

“Oh, well, he was very good about it
He laughed, I remember, and
shrugged his shoulders, and said there was no use denying anything to a
woman, for she would have her way.”

“I see
Then at the gasfitters’ ball you met, as I understand, a
gentleman called Mr
I met him that night, and he called next day to ask if we
had got home all safe, and after that we met him—that is to say, Mr
Holmes, I met him twice for walks, but after that father came back
again, and Mr
Hosmer Angel could not come to the house any more.”

“No?”

“Well, you know father didn’t like anything of the sort
He wouldn’t
have any visitors if he could help it, and he used to say that a woman
should be happy in her own family circle
But then, as I used to say to
mother, a woman wants her own circle to begin with, and I had not got
mine yet.”

“But how about Mr
Did he make no attempt to see you?”

“Well, father was going off to France again in a week, and Hosmer wrote
and said that it would be safer and better not to see each other until
he had gone
We could write in the meantime, and he used to write every
day
I took the letters in in the morning, so there was no need for
father to know.”

“Were you engaged to the gentleman at this time?”

“Oh, yes, Mr
We were engaged after the first walk that we
took
Angel—was a cashier in an office in Leadenhall
Street—and—”

“What office?”

“That’s the worst of it, Mr
That
will just show you how fond he was of me, Mr
Holmes, and the little
things that he would think of.”

“It was most suggestive,” said Holmes
“It has long been an axiom of
mine that the little things are infinitely the most important
Can you
remember any other little things about Mr
Hosmer Angel?”

“He was a very shy man, Mr
He would rather walk with me in the
evening than in the daylight, for he said that he hated to be
conspicuous
Very retiring and gentlemanly he was
He’d had the quinsy and swollen glands when he was young, he
told me, and it had left him with a weak throat, and a hesitating,
whispering fashion of speech
He was always well dressed, very neat and
plain, but his eyes were weak, just as mine are, and he wore tinted
glasses against the glare.”

“Well, and what happened when Mr
Windibank, your stepfather, returned
to France?”

“Mr
Hosmer Angel came to the house again and proposed that we should
marry before father came back
He was in dreadful earnest and made me
swear, with my hands on the Testament, that whatever happened I would
always be true to him
Mother said he was quite right to make me swear,
and that it was a sign of his passion
Mother was all in his favour
from the first and was even fonder of him than I was
Your wedding was arranged, then, for the
Friday
Was it to be in church?”

“Yes, sir, but very quietly
Saviour’s, near King’s
Cross, and we were to have breakfast afterwards at the St
Hosmer came for us in a hansom, but as there were two of us he
put us both into it and stepped himself into a four-wheeler, which
happened to be the only other cab in the street
We got to the church
first, and when the four-wheeler drove up we waited for him to step
out, but he never did, and when the cabman got down from the box and
looked there was no one there
The cabman said that he could not
imagine what had become of him, for he had seen him get in with his own
eyes
Holmes, and I have never seen or heard
anything since then to throw any light upon what became of him.”

“It seems to me that you have been very shamefully treated,” said
Holmes
He was too good and kind to leave me so
It seemed strange talk for a
wedding-morning, but what has happened since gives a meaning to it.”

“Most certainly it does
Your own opinion is, then, that some
unforeseen catastrophe has occurred to him?”

“Yes, sir
I believe that he foresaw some danger, or else he would not
have talked so
And then I think that what he foresaw happened.”

“But you have no notion as to what it could have been?”

“None.”

“One more question
How did your mother take the matter?”

“She was angry, and said that I was never to speak of the matter
again.”

“And your father
Did you tell him?”

“Yes; and he seemed to think, with me, that something had happened, and
that I should hear of Hosmer again
As he said, what interest could
anyone have in bringing me to the doors of the church, and then leaving
me
And yet, what could have happened
Oh, it drives me half-mad to think of it, and I can’t sleep a wink at
night.” She pulled a little handkerchief out of her muff and began to
sob heavily into it
“I shall glance into the case for you,” said Holmes, rising, “and I
have no doubt that we shall reach some definite result
Let the weight
of the matter rest upon me now, and do not let your mind dwell upon it
further
I should like an accurate
description of him and any letters of his which you can spare.”

“I advertised for him in last Saturday’s _Chronicle_,” said she
“Here
is the slip and here are four letters from him.”

“Thank you
31 Lyon Place, Camberwell.”

“Mr
Angel’s address you never had, I understand
Where is your
father’s place of business?”

“He travels for Westhouse & Marbank, the great claret importers of
Fenchurch Street.”

“Thank you
You have made your statement very clearly
You will leave
the papers here, and remember the advice which I have given you
Let
the whole incident be a sealed book, and do not allow it to affect your
life.”

“You are very kind, Mr
He shall find me ready when he comes back.”

For all the preposterous hat and the vacuous face, there was something
noble in the simple faith of our visitor which compelled our respect
She laid her little bundle of papers upon the table and went her way,
with a promise to come again whenever she might be summoned
Sherlock Holmes sat silent for a few minutes with his fingertips still
pressed together, his legs stretched out in front of him, and his gaze
directed upward to the ceiling
“Quite an interesting study, that maiden,” he observed
“I found her
more interesting than her little problem, which, by the way, is rather
a trite one
You will find parallel cases, if you consult my index, in
Andover in ’77, and there was something of the sort at The Hague last
year
Old as is the idea, however, there were one or two details which
were new to me
But the maiden herself was most instructive.”

“You appeared to read a good deal upon her which was quite invisible to
me,” I remarked
“Not invisible but unnoticed, Watson
You did not know where to look,
and so you missed all that was important
I can never bring you to
realise the importance of sleeves, the suggestiveness of thumb-nails,
or the great issues that may hang from a boot-lace
Now, what did you
gather from that woman’s appearance
Describe it.”

“Well, she had a slate-coloured, broad-brimmed straw hat, with a
feather of a brickish red
Her jacket was black, with black beads sewn
upon it, and a fringe of little black jet ornaments
Her dress was
brown, rather darker than coffee colour, with a little purple plush at
the neck and sleeves
Her gloves were greyish and were worn through at
the right forefinger
She had small round,
hanging gold earrings, and a general air of being fairly well-to-do in
a vulgar, comfortable, easy-going way.”

Sherlock Holmes clapped his hands softly together and chuckled
“’Pon my word, Watson, you are coming along wonderfully
You have
really done very well indeed
It is true that you have missed
everything of importance, but you have hit upon the method, and you
have a quick eye for colour
Never trust to general impressions, my
boy, but concentrate yourself upon details
My first glance is always
at a woman’s sleeve
In a man it is perhaps better first to take the
knee of the trouser
As you observe, this woman had plush upon her
sleeves, which is a most useful material for showing traces
The double
line a little above the wrist, where the typewritist presses against
the table, was beautifully defined
The sewing-machine, of the hand
type, leaves a similar mark, but only on the left arm, and on the side
of it farthest from the thumb, instead of being right across the
broadest part, as this was
One was
buttoned only in the two lower buttons out of five, and the other at
the first, third, and fifth
“I noted, in passing, that she had written a note before leaving home
but after being fully dressed
You observed that her right glove was
torn at the forefinger, but you did not apparently see that both glove
and finger were stained with violet ink
She had written in a hurry and
dipped her pen too deep
It must have been this morning, or the mark
would not remain clear upon the finger
All this is amusing, though
rather elementary, but I must go back to business, Watson
Would you
mind reading me the advertised description of Mr
Hosmer Angel?”

I held the little printed slip to the light
“Missing,” it said, “on
the morning of the fourteenth, a gentleman named Hosmer Angel
in height; strongly built, sallow complexion, black
hair, a little bald in the centre, bushy, black side-whiskers and
moustache; tinted glasses, slight infirmity of speech
Was dressed,
when last seen, in black frock-coat faced with silk, black waistcoat,
gold Albert chain, and grey Harris tweed trousers, with brown gaiters
over elastic-sided boots
Known to have been employed in an office in
Leadenhall Street
“As to the letters,” he continued,
glancing over them, “they are very commonplace
Absolutely no clue in
them to Mr
Angel, save that he quotes Balzac once
There is one
remarkable point, however, which will no doubt strike you.”

“They are typewritten,” I remarked
“Not only that, but the signature is typewritten
Look at the neat
little ‘Hosmer Angel’ at the bottom
There is a date, you see, but no
superscription except Leadenhall Street, which is rather vague
However, I shall write two letters, which
should settle the matter
One is to a firm in the City, the other is to
the young lady’s stepfather, Mr
Windibank, asking him whether he could
meet us here at six o’clock to-morrow evening
It is just as well that
we should do business with the male relatives
A professional case of great gravity was engaging my own attention at
the time, and the whole of next day I was busy at the bedside of the
sufferer
I found Sherlock Holmes alone, however, half
asleep, with his long, thin form curled up in the recesses of his
armchair
A formidable array of bottles and test-tubes, with the
pungent cleanly smell of hydrochloric acid, told me that he had spent
his day in the chemical work which was so dear to him
“Well, have you solved it?” I asked as I entered
It was the bisulphate of baryta.”

“No, no, the mystery!” I cried
I thought of the salt that I have been working upon
There
was never any mystery in the matter, though, as I said yesterday, some
of the details are of interest
“This is the girl’s stepfather, Mr
“He
has written to me to say that he would be here at six
He shot a questioning glance at each of us, placed his shiny
top-hat upon the sideboard, and with a slight bow sidled down into the
nearest chair
“I think that this
typewritten letter is from you, in which you made an appointment with
me for six o’clock?”

“Yes, sir
I am afraid that I am a little late, but I am not quite my
own master, you know
I am sorry that Miss Sutherland has troubled you
about this little matter, for I think it is far better not to wash
linen of the sort in public
It was quite against my wishes that she
came, but she is a very excitable, impulsive girl, as you may have
noticed, and she is not easily controlled when she has made up her mind
on a point
Of course, I did not mind you so much, as you are not
connected with the official police, but it is not pleasant to have a
family misfortune like this noised abroad
Besides, it is a useless
expense, for how could you possibly find this Hosmer Angel?”

“On the contrary,” said Holmes quietly; “I have every reason to believe
that I will succeed in discovering Mr
Windibank gave a violent start and dropped his gloves
“I am
delighted to hear it,” he said
“It is a curious thing,” remarked Holmes, “that a typewriter has really
quite as much individuality as a man’s handwriting
Unless they are
quite new, no two of them write exactly alike
Some letters get more
worn than others, and some wear only on one side
Now, you remark in
this note of yours, Mr
“And now I will show you what is really a very interesting study, Mr
“I think of writing another little
monograph some of these days on the typewriter and its relation to
crime
It is a subject to which I have devoted some little attention
I
have here four letters which purport to come from the missing man
Windibank sprang out of his chair and picked up his hat
“I cannot
waste time over this sort of fantastic talk, Mr
“If
you can catch the man, catch him, and let me know when you have done
it.”

“Certainly,” said Holmes, stepping over and turning the key in the
door
“I let you know, then, that I have caught him!”

“What
Windibank, turning white to his lips and
glancing about him like a rat in a trap
“Oh, it won’t do—really it won’t,” said Holmes suavely
“There is no
possible getting out of it, Mr
It is quite too transparent,
and it was a very bad compliment when you said that it was impossible
for me to solve so simple a question
Sit down and let us
talk it over.”

Our visitor collapsed into a chair, with a ghastly face and a glitter
of moisture on his brow
“It—it’s not actionable,” he stammered
“I am very much afraid that it is not
But between ourselves,
Windibank, it was as cruel and selfish and heartless a trick in a petty
way as ever came before me
Now, let me just run over the course of
events, and you will contradict me if I go wrong.”

The man sat huddled up in his chair, with his head sunk upon his
breast, like one who is utterly crushed
Holmes stuck his feet up on
the corner of the mantelpiece and, leaning back with his hands in his
pockets, began talking, rather to himself, as it seemed, than to us
“The man married a woman very much older than himself for her money,”
said he, “and he enjoyed the use of the money of the daughter as long
as she lived with them
It was a considerable sum, for people in their
position, and the loss of it would have made a serious difference
It
was worth an effort to preserve it
Now her
marriage would mean, of course, the loss of a hundred a year, so what
does her stepfather do to prevent it
He takes the obvious course of
keeping her at home and forbidding her to seek the company of people of
her own age
But soon he found that that would not answer forever
She
became restive, insisted upon her rights, and finally announced her
positive intention of going to a certain ball
What does her clever
stepfather do then
He conceives an idea more creditable to his head
than to his heart
Hosmer Angel, and keeps off other
lovers by making love himself.”

“It was only a joke at first,” groaned our visitor
“We never thought
that she would have been so carried away.”

“Very likely not
She was flattered by the gentleman’s
attentions, and the effect was increased by the loudly expressed
admiration of her mother
Angel began to call, for it was
obvious that the matter should be pushed as far as it would go if a
real effect were to be produced
There were meetings, and an
engagement, which would finally secure the girl’s affections from
turning towards anyone else
But the deception could not be kept up
forever
These pretended journeys to France were rather cumbrous
Hence those vows of fidelity exacted upon a
Testament, and hence also the allusions to a possibility of something
happening on the very morning of the wedding
James Windibank wished
Miss Sutherland to be so bound to Hosmer Angel, and so uncertain as to
his fate, that for ten years to come, at any rate, she would not listen
to another man
As far as the church door he brought her, and then, as
he could go no farther, he conveniently vanished away by the old trick
of stepping in at one door of a four-wheeler and out at the other
I
think that was the chain of events, Mr
Windibank!”

Our visitor had recovered something of his assurance while Holmes had
been talking, and he rose from his chair now with a cold sneer upon his
pale face
“It may be so, or it may not, Mr
Holmes,” said he, “but if you are so
very sharp you ought to be sharp enough to know that it is you who are
breaking the law now, and not me
If the young lady has a brother or a friend, he ought
to lay a whip across your shoulders
James Windibank running at the top of his speed down the
road
“There’s a cold-blooded scoundrel!” said Holmes, laughing, as he threw
himself down into his chair once more
“That fellow will rise from
crime to crime until he does something very bad, and ends on a gallows
The case has, in some respects, been not entirely devoid of interest.”

“I cannot now entirely see all the steps of your reasoning,” I
remarked
“Well, of course it was obvious from the first that this Mr
Hosmer
Angel must have some strong object for his curious conduct, and it was
equally clear that the only man who really profited by the incident, as
far as we could see, was the stepfather
Then the fact that the two men
were never together, but that the one always appeared when the other
was away, was suggestive
So were the tinted spectacles and the curious
voice, which both hinted at a disguise, as did the bushy whiskers
You see all these isolated facts, together with many minor ones,
all pointed in the same direction.”

“And how did you verify them?”

“Having once spotted my man, it was easy to get corroboration
I knew
the firm for which this man worked
Having taken the printed
description
I had already noticed
the peculiarities of the typewriter, and I wrote to the man himself at
his business address asking him if he would come here
As I expected,
his reply was typewritten and revealed the same trivial but
characteristic defects
The same post brought me a letter from
Westhouse & Marbank, of Fenchurch Street, to say that the description
tallied in every respect with that of their employé, James Windibank
_Voilà tout_!”

“And Miss Sutherland?”

“If I tell her she will not believe me
THE BOSCOMBE VALLEY MYSTERY


We were seated at breakfast one morning, my wife and I, when the maid
brought in a telegram
It was from Sherlock Holmes and ran in this way:

“Have you a couple of days to spare
Have just been wired for from the
west of England in connection with Boscombe Valley tragedy
Shall be
glad if you will come with me
Leave
Paddington by the 11:15.”

“What do you say, dear?” said my wife, looking across at me
“Will you
go?”

“I really don’t know what to say
I have a fairly long list at
present.”

“Oh, Anstruther would do your work for you
You have been looking a
little pale lately
I think that the change would do you good, and you
are always so interested in Mr
Sherlock Holmes’ cases.”

“I should be ungrateful if I were not, seeing what I gained through one
of them,” I answered
“But if I am to go, I must pack at once, for I
have only half an hour.”

My experience of camp life in Afghanistan had at least had the effect
of making me a prompt and ready traveller
My wants were few and
simple, so that in less than the time stated I was in a cab with my
valise, rattling away to Paddington Station
Sherlock Holmes was pacing
up and down the platform, his tall, gaunt figure made even gaunter and
taller by his long grey travelling-cloak and close-fitting cloth cap
“It is really very good of you to come, Watson,” said he
“It makes a
considerable difference to me, having someone with me on whom I can
thoroughly rely
Local aid is always either worthless or else biassed
If you will keep the two corner seats I shall get the tickets.”

We had the carriage to ourselves save for an immense litter of papers
which Holmes had brought with him
Among these he rummaged and read,
with intervals of note-taking and of meditation, until we were past
Reading
Then he suddenly rolled them all into a gigantic ball and
tossed them up onto the rack
“Have you heard anything of the case?” he asked
I have not seen a paper for some days.”

“The London press has not had very full accounts
I have just been
looking through all the recent papers in order to master the
particulars
It seems, from what I gather, to be one of those simple
cases which are so extremely difficult.”

“That sounds a little paradoxical.”

“But it is profoundly true
Singularity is almost invariably a clue
The more featureless and commonplace a crime is, the more difficult it
is to bring it home
In this case, however, they have established a
very serious case against the son of the murdered man.”

“It is a murder, then?”

“Well, it is conjectured to be so
I shall take nothing for granted
until I have the opportunity of looking personally into it
I will
explain the state of things to you, as far as I have been able to
understand it, in a very few words
“Boscombe Valley is a country district not very far from Ross, in
Herefordshire
The largest landed proprietor in that part is a Mr
John
Turner, who made his money in Australia and returned some years ago to
the old country
One of the farms which he held, that of Hatherley, was
let to Mr
Charles McCarthy, who was also an ex-Australian
The men had
known each other in the colonies, so that it was not unnatural that
when they came to settle down they should do so as near each other as
possible
Turner was apparently the richer man, so McCarthy became his
tenant but still remained, it seems, upon terms of perfect equality, as
they were frequently together
McCarthy had one son, a lad of eighteen,
and Turner had an only daughter of the same age, but neither of them
had wives living
McCarthy kept two servants—a man
and a girl
Turner had a considerable household, some half-dozen at the
least
That is as much as I have been able to gather about the
families
He had been out with his
serving-man in the morning at Ross, and he had told the man that he
must hurry, as he had an appointment of importance to keep at three
From that appointment he never came back alive
“From Hatherley Farmhouse to the Boscombe Pool is a quarter of a mile,
and two people saw him as he passed over this ground
One was an old
woman, whose name is not mentioned, and the other was William Crowder,
a game-keeper in the employ of Mr
Both these witnesses depose
that Mr
The game-keeper adds that within a
few minutes of his seeing Mr
McCarthy pass he had seen his son, Mr